Luke 2
Luke 23
Acts 18
But Luke was concerned primarily for the history of Israel as it related to the ministry of Jesus Christ. The infancy narratives (Luke 1-2) can hardly be understood apart from an appreciation of Israel’s plight and Luke’s concluding account in Acts 28 notes Paul’s broken-hearted citation of Isa 6:9-10. Between the infancy narratives and Paul’s bitter sermon in Rome Luke
INTRO: the ancient Greeks had a system for language aquisition that might help students improve their knoledge of Greek. This system, more or less, was taken up by the young Ben Franklin. He was concerned not with learning a foreogn language, but how to employ his native English with greater perpescuity. The general practice of imitation, copying a text exactly, triggers language paradigms and vocabulary as they would occur in actual use and does so in a manner where the mind is more relaxed than the normal process of word-for-word translation.
Imitation
Ben Franklin: copy and re-write the same kernel ideas in different words. At times Franklin would express a poem in prose a vice-versa, forcing his mind to identify new or fresh words and arrangements of words from which he could choose to best express said idea.
How to’s with the Biblical languages: a favorite passage…class translation exercises (if any students in my Greek classes are reading this today, you have a preview of the methodology we will employ next week)…a non-Biblical text (1 Clement or Thucydides)…have a grammar and lexicon handy…students will likely find that they are less intimidated the next time they are forced to translate a text word-for-word…could also re-write a prose passage using different words or in a different genre…appreciation of the interplay of verbal tense-form and word choices of the Biblical authors.
My Advent sermon series this year is in 1 John. Having just finished the Gospel of Luke, completed in two years, I did not want to return to the infancy narratives of the Gospels. So on to John’s longest letter for the hopes of offering the church some of John’s reflections on what we celebrate at Christmas. I think 1 John is one of the final New Testament books to be written. The aged apostle writes to set out Christianity as it is—and always will be.
What kind of grammatical forms might an author use to connote the structural stability of their subject matter? In 1 John 2-3, John writes twenty-six substantival participles, all articular. John writes a total of fifty-eight participles in 1 John, forty-nine of them substantival (Köstenberger, Merkle, and Plummer, 326 n. 13). Participles are supplementary and at times ambiguous forms of communication (Buth, 289). But when an author substanizes a participle, it becomes a concretizes an idea, emphasizing the structural stability of its referent. Stanley E. Porter writes, “The (substantival) participle adds the semantic features of its respective verb tense-form, which must be considered in appreciating the full force of the phrase or clause” (Porter, 183). In other words, a normal participle is like a compact sedan, supplementing family travel by carrying one, two, three people comfortably on errands. The articular substantival participle is like a Chevy Suburban, people and gear for a specific trip.
Below, the twenty-six articular substantival participles in 1 John 2-3 are marked with bold font. The English phrases in the NASB (1995) that translate these participles are also marked with bold font.
1John 2:4 ὁ λέγωνὅτι ἔγνωκα αὐτὸν καὶ τὰς ἐντολὰς αὐτοῦ μὴ τηρῶν ψεύστης ἐστίν, καὶ ἐν τούτῳἡ ἀλήθεια οὐκ ἔστιν·1John2:4 The one who says, “aI havecome to bknowHim,” and does not keep Hiscommandments, is a cliar, and dthe truth is not in him;
1John 2:6 ὁ λέγων ἐν αὐτῷ μένειν ὀφείλει, καθὼς ἐκεῖνος περιεπάτησεν, καὶ αὐτὸς οὕτως περιπατεῖν.
1John 2:6 the one who says he aabides in Him bought himself to walk in the same manner as He walked.
1John 2:9 Ὁ λέγων ἐν τῷ φωτὶ εἶναι καὶ τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ μισῶν ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ ἐστὶν ἕως ἄρτι. 10 ὁ ἀγαπῶν τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ ἐν τῷ φωτὶ μένει, καὶ σκάνδαλον ἐν αὐτῷ οὐκ ἔστιν· 11 ὁ δὲ μισῶν τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ ἐστὶν καὶ ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ περιπατεῖ καὶ οὐκ οἶδεν ποῦ ὑπάγει, ὅτι ἡ σκοτία ἐτύφλωσεν τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς αὐτοῦ.
1John 2:9 The one who says he is in the Light and yet ahates his bbrother is in the darkness until now. 10 aThe one who loves his brother abides in the Light and there is no cause for stumbling in him. 11 But the one who ahates his brother is in the darkness and bwalks in the darkness, and does not know where he is going because the darkness has cblinded his eyes.
1John 2:17 καὶ ὁ κόσμος παράγεται καὶ ἡ ἐπιθυμία αὐτοῦ, ὁ δὲ ποιῶν τὸ θέλημα τοῦ θεοῦ μένει εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα.
1John 2:17 aThe world is passing away, and also its lusts; but the one who bdoes the will of God lives forever.
1John 2:22 Τίς ἐστιν ὁ ψεύστης εἰ μὴ ὁ ἀρνούμενος ὅτι Ἰησοῦς οὐκ ἔστιν ὁ Χριστός; οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ ἀντίχριστος, ὁ ἀρνούμενος τὸν πατέρα καὶ τὸν υἱόν. 23 πᾶς ὁ ἀρνούμενος τὸν υἱὸν οὐδὲ τὸν πατέρα ἔχει, ὁ ὁμολογῶν τὸν υἱὸν καὶ τὸν πατέρα ἔχει.
1John 2:22 Who is the liar but athe one who denies that Jesus is the 1Christ? This is bthe antichrist, the one who denies the Father and the Son. 23 aWhoever denies the Son does not have the Father; the one who confesses the Son has the Father also.
1John 2:26 Ταῦτα ἔγραψα ὑμῖν περὶ τῶν πλανώντων ὑμᾶς.
1John 2:26 These things I have written to you concerning those who are trying to adeceive you.
1John 2:29 ἐὰν εἰδῆτε ὅτι δίκαιός ἐστιν, γινώσκετε ὅτι καὶ πᾶς ὁ ποιῶν τὴν δικαιοσύνην ἐξ αὐτοῦ γεγέννηται.
1John 2:29 If you know that aHe is righteous, you know that everyone also who practices righteousness bis 1born of Him.
1John 3:3 καὶ πᾶς ὁ ἔχων τὴν ἐλπίδα ταύτην ἐπ᾿ αὐτῷ ἁγνίζει ἑαυτόν, καθὼς ἐκεῖνος ἁγνός ἐστιν.
1John 3:3 And everyone who has this ahope fixed on Him bpurifies himself, just as He is pure.
1John 3:4 Πᾶς ὁ ποιῶν τὴν ἁμαρτίαν καὶ τὴν ἀνομίαν ποιεῖ, καὶ ἡ ἁμαρτία ἐστὶν ἡ ἀνομία.
1John 3:4 Everyone who practices sin also practices lawlessness; and asin is lawlessness.
1John 3:6 πᾶς ὁ ἐν αὐτῷ μένων οὐχ ἁμαρτάνει· πᾶς ὁ ἁμαρτάνων οὐχ ἑώρακεν αὐτὸν οὐδὲ ἔγνωκεν αὐτόν.
1John 3:7 Παιδία, μηδεὶς πλανάτω ὑμᾶς· ὁ ποιῶν τὴν δικαιοσύνην δίκαιός ἐστιν, καθὼς ἐκεῖνος δίκαιός ἐστιν· 8 ὁ ποιῶν τὴν ἁμαρτίαν ἐκ τοῦ διαβόλου ἐστίν, ὅτι ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς ὁ διάβολος ἁμαρτάνει. εἰς τοῦτο ἐφανερώθη ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ, ἵνα λύσῃ τὰ ἔργα τοῦ διαβόλου. 9 Πᾶς ὁ γεγεννημένος ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ ἁμαρτίαν οὐ ποιεῖ, ὅτι σπέρμα αὐτοῦ ἐν αὐτῷ μένει, καὶ οὐ δύναται ἁμαρτάνειν, ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ γεγέννηται. 10 ἐν τούτῳ φανερά ἐστιν τὰ τέκνα τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ τὰ τέκνα τοῦ διαβόλου· πᾶς ὁ μὴ ποιῶν δικαιοσύνην οὐκ ἔστιν ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ ὁ μὴ ἀγαπῶν τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ.
1John 3:6 No one who abides in Him asins; no one who sins has seen Him or 1bknows Him. 7 aLittle children, make sure no one bdeceives you; cthe one who practices righteousness is righteous, just as He is righteous; 8 the one who practices sin is aof the devil; for the devil 1has sinned from the beginning. bThe Son of God cappeared for this purpose, dto destroy the works of the devil. 9 No one who is 1aborn of God bpractices sin, because His seed abides in him; and he cannot sin, because he is 1born of God. 10 By this the achildren of God and the bchildren of the devil are obvious: 1anyone who does not practice righteousness is not of God, nor the one who cdoes not love his dbrother.
1John 3:14 ἡμεῖς οἴδαμεν ὅτι μεταβεβήκαμεν ἐκ τοῦ θανάτου εἰς τὴν ζωήν, ὅτι ἀγαπῶμεν τοὺς ἀδελφούς· ὁ μὴ ἀγαπῶν μένει ἐν τῷ θανάτῳ. 15 πᾶς ὁ μισῶν τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ ἀνθρωποκτόνος ἐστίν, καὶ οἴδατε ὅτι πᾶς ἀνθρωποκτόνος οὐκ ἔχει ζωὴν αἰώνιον ἐν αὐτῷ μένουσαν.
1John 3:14 We know that we have apassed out of death into life, bbecause we love the brethren. He who does not love abides in death. 15 Everyone who ahates his brother is a murderer; and you know that bno murderer has eternal life abiding in him.
1John 3:24 καὶ ὁ τηρῶν τὰς ἐντολὰς αὐτοῦ ἐν αὐτῷ μένει καὶ αὐτὸς ἐν αὐτῷ· καὶ ἐν τούτῳ γινώσκομεν ὅτι μένει ἐν ἡμῖν, ἐκ τοῦ πνεύματος οὗ ἡμῖν ἔδωκεν.
1John 3:24 The one who akeeps His commandments babides in Him, and He in him. cWe know by this that dHe abides in us, by the Spirit whom He has given us.
As you can see, in 1 John 2-3 John substantizes verbs of speech and action. Verbs like ἀρνέομαι (2:22[2], 23), λέγω (2:4, 6, 9), and ὁμολογέω (2:23) note the importance of the Christian confession and speaking forth a committement to walk in the steps of Christ. With these verbs, John coordinates substantival participles connoting actions. Words like ἀγαπάω (2:10: 3:10, 14), ἁμαρτάνω (3:6), μένω (3:6 ), μισέω (2:9, 11; 3:15), ποιέω (2:17, 29; 3:4, 7, 8, 10), and τηρέω (2:4; 3:24) are substanized with the article to emphasize the concrete, structural nature of the verbal idea.
That is why 1 John reads like molasses. It is slow, dense. John writes so that his readers have lots of time to think as they hear or listen to his letter. He wants no member of his audience to be confused about the nature of the Christian message. Despite those who have gone out (2:18-19), the Christian message and the lifestyle of its adherants will never change.
On a broader discourse level, John’s substantizing of these verbs serves to fill in the ideational framework he establishes in 1 John 1. The series of “if/then” conditional statements in 1 John 1:6-10 initiates categories of thought regarding the Christian confession and the need for Christian behavior. By means of articular substantival participles, in 1 John 2-3, John elaborates on these categories, reinforcing the need for Christian integrity in his audience.
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Köstenberger, Andreas J., Benjamin L. Merkle, and Robert L. Plummer. Going Deeper with New Testament Greek: An Intermediate Study of the Grammar and Syntax of the New Testament. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016.
Porter, Stanley E. Idioms of the Greek New Testament. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1994.
Runge, Steven E. and Christopher J. Fresch, eds. The Greek Verb Revisited: A Fresh Approach for Biblical Exegesis. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016.
Even in the early stages of Ph.D. studies, students should consider areas of research for their dissertation. Many avenues are open to students who wish to invest years of their life researching and writing about the Scriptures. Stephen Neill’s summary of the commentary methodology of the Cambridge three, J.B. Lightfoot, B.F. Westcott, and F.J.A. Hort provides an enduring rubric for how students of the Scriptures should go about their work. Lightfoot, Westcott, and Hort served together at the University of Cambridge from 1860-1900 and countered German higher criticism as it marched westward to the British Isles. The Cambridge three chart a course that Evangelicals yet walk.
Neill notes that Lightfoot, Westcott, and Hort employed a five-fold process for their New Testament commentary work. For them, a New Testament commentary must be (1) critical: based upon the most accurate Greek text possible, (2) linguistic: based upon philology and analysis of sentences, (3) historical: grounded in the situation in which it appears to have been written, (4) exegetical: presenting the message as the first readers would have heard it, and (5) theological: guided by the rule of faith that has guided Christians from the early church to the present day (Neill and Wright: 93-94). Students would do well to see these five as points of entry for the dissertation in Biblical studies. The final product of the dissertation will advance one area while explaining how it contributes to the other four.
Corpus linguistics and discourse analysis contribute to (2). Lightfoot, Westcott, and Hort read the New Testament and the literature of its world to produce their commentaries. Modern students have the advantage of computer software that can gather linguistic data in seconds. But, as Matthew Brooke O’Donnell notes, “Large corpora and powerful retrieval programs are not a substitute for an intelligent linguist and a close reading of the text” (O’Donnell: 209). When the linguistically-minded interpreter identifies lexical and grammatical patterns in a text, Bible software provides a means of confirming or denying those patterns.
In what follows, I list twenty-five linguistic seedlings for dissertations in Biblical studies. In reading Scripture, I have noticed patterns in the following areas and confirmed them using Bible software. Linguistically-minded students, yet sensitive to the broader five-fold commentary process advocated by Lightfoot, Westcott, and Hort above, could grow these seedlings into a dissertation and contribute to the field of Biblical studies.
The Imperfect tense form in LXX Exodus 1-6
Imperatives, Future Indicatives, and Aorist Subjunctives in LXX Deuteronomy 20-26
Aorist Middle Indicatives in the Psalms
Datives in LXX Isaiah 40-66
Shepherd Imagery in LXX Zech 9-14 and Jer 25-32
ἐμοί (as a pronoun) in the New Testament
Imperatives in Matthew 5-10
ἀναγι(γ)νώσκω in the Gospels and Acts
The Imperfect in the Gospel of Mark
Female Figures in Luke/Acts with reference to Verbs of Speech
ἔργον in Johannine Literature
ἐκ in John and Revelation
Subjunctives in the John 11-12, 15, 17, 19; 1 John 1; Revelation 18
Verbal Aspect of the Indicative Mood in the Upper Room Discourse (John 13-16)
μνεία and Verbal Combinations in the New Testament
Infinitives in Acts 23-27 and Hebrews 5-7
Use of the Imperfect in Paul
The Genitive Case in Romans 1-8
Terms of Cognition (Louw & Nida 28-30) in Romans 5-8
Analysis of Adverbs in Select Sections of Pauline Epistles (Rom 5-7; Phil 3-4; 1 Cor 15; 2 Cor 11-12; 1 Thes 2)
Conditional Statements in Galatians and James
Imperatives in 1-2 Timothy
Imperatives 1 Peter and James
Participles in 1 John
The Genitive Case in Revelation 1-5
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Neill, Stephen, and N. T. Wright. The Interpretation of the New Testament, 1861-1986. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
O’Donnell, Matthew Brook. Corpus Linguistics & the Greek of the New Testament. New Testament Monographs 6. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2005.
Memorizing Scripture in the original languages can aid in learning grammar because this practice forces us to think about every word. While memorizing Hebrews 9, I struggled to identify what noun the perfect passive participle περικεκαλυμμένην in Heb 9:4 might be modifying. I could not find an accusative feminine noun in the immediate context. The only noun was κιβωτὸν; surely an accusative masculine noun. But what about that definite article τὴν that precedes? It relates to περικεκαλυμμένην, but still, a noun was needed. When I looked up κιβωτός, I remembered that–just as some first declension nouns are masculine–some second declension nouns are feminine.
The rule is that first declension nouns are normally feminine and second declension are normally masculine and neuter. Students normally get this down after a few weeks of an elementary Greek course. But exceptions exist for both masculine and feminine words. A few first declension nouns (e.g., μαθητής, προφήτης) are masculine. These follow the first declension paradigm except in the genitive singular, where they take second declension endings. This is likely to avoid confusion with the genitive singular first declension form (see Mounce, BBG 4th Ed., p. 63, n. 18).
Even rarer are instances of a feminine second declension noun. These exceptions can prove troublesome in exegesis if students are not aware that a second declension noun can be feminine in gender. One such word is the second declension feminine noun κιβωτός. I have listed the New Testament examples below (exported from Logos Bible Software, 2:23 PM December 7, 2020). The instances of κιβωτός in Heb 9:4 and 1 Pet 3:20 are modified by attributive participles that rightly take first declension feminine endings. On the surface, these appear to be a mis-match with the second declension κιβωτός. But when it is remembered that κιβωτός is a feminine word, the gender match is identified.
This note reinforces the rule that attributive participles (and adjectives) modify nouns based on case, number, and gender, not necessarily declension. Here the definite article’s role of pointing rises to the surface as well. And memorizing the Greek text reinforces these rules of grammar.
Matt 24:38
NA28
ὡς γὰρ ἦσαν ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις [ἐκείναις] ταῖς πρὸ τοῦ κατακλυσμοῦ τρώγοντες καὶ πίνοντες, γαμοῦντες καὶ γαμίζοντες, ἄχρι ἧς ἡμέρας εἰσῆλθεν Νῶε εἰς τὴν κιβωτόν,
Christian Standard Bible
For in those days before the flood they were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, until the day Noah boarded the ark.
Luke 17:27
NA28
ἤσθιον, ἔπινον, ἐγάμουν, ἐγαμίζοντο, ἄχρι ἧς ἡμέρας εἰσῆλθεν Νῶε εἰς τὴν κιβωτὸν καὶ ἦλθεν ὁ κατακλυσμὸς καὶ ἀπώλεσεν πάντας.
Christian Standard Bible
People went on eating, drinking, marrying and being given in marriage until the day Noah boarded the ark, and the flood came and destroyed them all.
Heb 9:4
NA28
χρυσοῦν ἔχουσα θυμιατήριον καὶ τὴν κιβωτὸν τῆς διαθήκης περικεκαλυμμένην πάντοθεν χρυσίῳ, ἐν ᾗ στάμνος χρυσῆ ἔχουσα τὸ μάννα καὶ ἡ ῥάβδος Ἀαρὼν ἡ βλαστήσασα καὶ αἱ πλάκες τῆς διαθήκης,
Christian Standard Bible
It had the gold altar of incense and the ark of the covenant, covered with gold on all sides, in which was a gold jar containing the manna, Aaron’s staff that budded, and the tablets of the covenant.
Heb 11:7
NA28
Πίστει χρηματισθεὶς Νῶε περὶ τῶν μηδέπω βλεπομένων, εὐλαβηθεὶς κατεσκεύασεν κιβωτὸν εἰς σωτηρίαν τοῦ οἴκου αὐτοῦ διʼ ἧς κατέκρινεν τὸν κόσμον, καὶ τῆς κατὰ πίστιν δικαιοσύνης ἐγένετο κληρονόμος.
Christian Standard Bible
By faith Noah, after he was warned about what was not yet seen and motivated by godly fear, built an ark to deliver his family. By faith he condemned the world and became an heir of the righteousness that comes by faith.
1 Pet 3:20
NA28
ἀπειθήσασίν ποτε, ὅτε ἀπεξεδέχετο ἡ τοῦ θεοῦ μακροθυμία ἐν ἡμέραις Νῶε κατασκευαζομένης κιβωτοῦ εἰς ἣν ὀλίγοι, τοῦτʼ ἔστιν ὀκτὼ ψυχαί, διεσώθησαν διʼ ὕδατος
Christian Standard Bible
who in the past were disobedient, when God patiently waited in the days of Noah while the ark was being prepared. In it a few—that is, eight people—were saved through water.
Rev 11:19
NA28
καὶ ἠνοίγη ὁ ναὸς τοῦ θεοῦ ὁ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ καὶ ὤφθη ἡ κιβωτὸς τῆς διαθήκης αὐτοῦ ἐν τῷ ναῷ αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐγένοντο ἀστραπαὶ καὶ φωναὶ καὶ βρονταὶ καὶ σεισμὸς καὶ χάλαζα μεγάλη.
Christian Standard Bible
Then the temple of God in heaven was opened, and the ark of his covenant appeared in his temple. There were flashes of lightning, rumblings and peals of thunder, an earthquake, and severe hail.
When ἐμοί occurs, it occurs frequently. An emphatic form used repeatedly in a context. What might be the implications of its use in John 14-15, Romans 7, and Galatians 1-2, and 6?
Considering Ascension Day, I am struck by how often New Testament authors employed the Old Testament when describing Christ’s ascension. Recently I noticed at least three instances of this in Ephesians. Here I tease out points of contact between the Old Testament passages Paul referenced and his broader argument in the epistle. It is fascinating how Paul connects Christ’s ascension with church life, so practical.
Everything Under His Feet
In Eph 1:22, Paul quoted Ps 8:6 to
articulate Christ’s exalted state following His resurrection and ascension to
God’s right hand. In Psalm 8, the psalmist praised the Lord for His power in
creation and the glory He placed upon humanity as stewards of all He had made. In
Eph 1:22, Paul quoted Ps 8:6 saying that when God raised up Christ and He ascended
to God’s right hand in heaven, everything was placed under Christ’s feet Paul’s
use of Ps 8:6 concerned not humanity, as in the original literary context of
the psalm, but Christ. The psalmist praised God for placing humanity over the
natural world, but Paul used Ps 8:6 to articulate Christ’s rule over not just
the physical universe but also the heavenly spiritual rulers that oppose
believers. In Eph 3:10, Paul argued that God’s plan of unifying Jews and
Gentiles in Christ was to demonstrate His victory over the spiritual forces of
evil in the heavens—those that seek to divide God’s people, unified in
Christ.
The Generous Conqueror
In Eph 4:8, Paul quoted Ps 68:18 to
shape the Ephesians’ understanding of spiritual gifting and service in the
church. In Psalm 68, the psalmist recounted God’s great power over those who
had opposed the Lord and His people from the days of the giving of the law on
Mount Sinai to the conquest of Canaan. The psalmist portrayed God as One who
ascended to the heights of the mountains, received gifts from people, and
overtook the lands of the rebellious so that His people might dwell in them;
God was victorious over all. In Paul’s interpretation of Ps 68:18, he placed
Christ as the ruling Victor who gifts His people in the church with abilities
for spiritual service that the church might function as a well-coordinated body.
Paul wrote that gifted leaders labor “for the training of the saints in the
work of ministry, to build up the body of Christ” (Eph 4:12).
Ruling the Ruler of Darkness
In Eph 4:27 and 6:10-13, Paul
portrayed the Devil as the opponent of the church, echoing the descriptions of the
Devil in the Old Testament. In Gen 3:1-7, through the serpent the Devil tempted
Eve to disobey God. The Devil slandered God’s character and perverted His word
to humanity. When Adam and Eve sinned, their fellowship was broken. Rather than
being naked and unashamed, they were naked and sought to cover themselves (Gen
2:25; 3:7). As a consequence of Adam and Eve’s sin, the Lord stated that there
would be hostility between the Devil and humanity until the day when the seed
of Eve would strike the Devil on his head (Gen 3:15).
In Eph 1:20-23 and 3:8-10, Paul wrote
that in Christ’s resurrection and ascension, He ruled over the spiritual forces
in the heavens. The Seed of Eve struck the Devil when He came alive out of the
tomb and took His place of authority at God’s right hand in heaven. Paul wrote
that divisions in the church were the result of the Devil’s influence. The Ephesians
thus needed to lovingly speak words that resulted from fellowship with the Holy
Spirit so that they might be a community of grace and forgiveness (Eph 4:29-32).
As the Ephesian church put on the armor of God, they could together withstand the
Devil’s efforts to divide them against one another. “For our battle is not
against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities,
against the world powers of this darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil
in the heavens” (Eph 6:12).
Students trained in traditional exegesis and historical-grammatical hermeneutics sometimes struggle when discussing interpretive practices with those trained in linguistics. The concept of register can be confusing, so my hope here is to give an analogy and then explain and illustrate some basic concepts of register as articulated by M.A.K Halliday and Ruquaiya Hasan, Stanley E. Porter, and Matthew Brooke O’Donnell.
Analogy
When someone registers for an event, specific information is required by the host in order to establish a set of mutual expectations regarding the participant’s involvement. A participant provides their name, contact information, and other relevant data so that the host can be prepared for the participant’s presence and activity at the event. The more thoroughly and clearly a participant communicates their registry information, the less likely it will be that the host of the event is surprised when the participant arrives. The registration is the sum of the specific information common to the participant and the host so that each knows what to expect from the other at the event.
Explanation
In the same way, register of texts is a way of gathering information provided by the author and giving it to the reader so that the reader can know what to expect from the text in view. In defining a text, Halliday and Hasan write that a text is cohesion supplemented by register (23). “A text is a passage of discourse which is coherent in these two regards: it is coherent with respect to the context of situation, and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive” (23). Register is the sum of situational features of a text (Halliday and Hasan, 22; Porter, 221). The goal of register studies to is establish expectations the reader should bring to the text. Register is to a linguist what context is to an exegete, traditionally speaking. Porter notes that register studies are a logical extension of systemic functional linguistics and infers that “One of the distinct advantages of the notion of register in discourse studies is that it provides a means by which the data of a language can be described, categorized, and then usefully analyzed in service of broader discourse notions” (219-20). Register provides the interpreter with the context of the situation and environment in which a set of utterances were made (Porter, 146, 221).
Illustration
Linguists typically identify three discourse elements in a register: mode, tenor, and field (Halliday and Hasan, 22; O’Donnell, 198-99; Porter, 146-48; 219-36). I suggest analyzing these in said order. First, the mode of a text refers to the type of language involved and the text. Stated differently, mode concerns the “how” of a text. Here interpreters investigate the cohesive features of a text and how the author uses words and grammatical forms to organize the phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs of the text. These cohesive textual properties can be analyzed and quantified. It is these cohesive features that often help the reader to see the coherence of a text (O’Donnell, 427). Analyzing direct and indirect discourse, monologue, dialogue, narration, exposition, exhortation, etc. in a text constitute the mode of a text’s overall register. Additionally, studies of the mode of a text identify the text’s genre under headings like procedural, narrative, epistolary, etc. In the story of Zacchaeus in Luke 19:1-10, the mode of the text is narrative with reported dialogue. References to taxes and crowds serve as cohesive features in the text.
Second, the tenor of a text is the “who,” the participants involved and the roles they play in the discourse. Studies of tenor answer questions like, Who are the main characters involved? What is the relational matrix of participants in a particular scene? Do the relationships between participants develop or change? What social groups do the participants belong to? In Luke 19:1-10, the participants include Jesus, Zacchaeus, and the crowd of onlookers. Jesus’ status as a respected teacher is contrasted with Zacchaeus status as a tax collector, one who is despised. The reaction of the crowd provides an interpretive grid for subject matter and events.
Finally, the field of a text refers to the overall situation of the discourse (Porter, 146-58). The subject matter of the text, the purposes of the participants, and the transactions of the participants involved are investigated to identify the field of a text’s register. In the story of the Zacchaeus, the field of the text’s register includes the hospitality Zacchaeus offers to Jesus and Jesus offers to Zacchaeus. Additionally, Zacchaeus’ zeal to see Jesus and the concept of cleanliness would need to be investigated under the heading of field.
Halliday, M.A.K., and Ruqaiya Hasan. Cohesion in English. New York, Longman, 1976.
O’Donnell, Matthew Brook. Corpus Linguistics & the Greek of the New Testament. New Testament Monographs 6. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2005.
Porter, Stanley E. Linguistic Analysis of the Greek New Testament: Studies in Tools, Methods, and Practice. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2015.
One of the values of Biblical Theology is that it promotes the voices of the Minor Prophets. Habbakuk’s prophecy encapsulates macro themes from the Old Testament and lays a foundation for understanding the New Testament. Habakkuk did not specify those who reigned in Judah during his ministry, but the themes and tone of his writing parallel the events following the death of Josiah, when Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:10-25:21). Habakkuk was an insightful, prayerful preacher who knew the character of his God and was in tune with the spiritual situation of his day. Habakkuk’s role in the storyline of Scripture cannot be overstated. The New Testament authors employed Habakkuk’s prophecy to explain justification in Christ alone and the faithful response God requires of those who receive His grace in Christ.
Justification in Christ Alone
God raised up the pagan Chaldeans to discipline the people of Judah. Habakkuk and the people of Judah could not understand what God was doing. In Hab 1:5-11, the prophet recorded God’s answer to his inquiry about the apparent discrepancy between God’s covenant loyalty to His people and the rise of the Chaldeans. The Lord said to Habakkuk, “Look! I am raising up the Chaldeans, that bitter, impetuous nation that marches across the earth’s open spaces to seize territories not its own” (Hab 1:6). God’s work in Habakkuk’s day was different than the prophet or the people expected. But if Judah failed to recognize that God had raised up the Chaldeans to discipline them and send them into exile, then the people of Judah would lose their lives fighting against God.
Paul employed the words of Habakkuk during his first missionary journey when he preached in Antioch of Pisidia. Paul reviewed salvation history from the captivity of Israel in Egypt to the rule of King David to the resurrection of Jesus. Paul argued that Jesus’ resurrection demonstrated Jesus’ superiority even over Israel’s great king David and employed Hab 1:5 as evidence that his listeners should believe upon Jesus as Savior. Paul warned his audience in Pisidian Antioch that though God’s offer of salvation in Jesus differed from their expectations, only through Jesus could anyone be justified. “So beware that what is said in the prophets does not happen to you: ‘Look, you scoffers, marvel and vanish away, because I am doing a work in your days, a work that you will never believe, even if someone were to explain it to you’” (Acts 13:36-41), Paul said.
The Faith(ful) Response of the Justified
In Hab 2:2-5, the prophet recorded God’s answer to his second prayer, when he asked how God could work through the wicked Chaldeans in order to accomplish His holy will. The Lord replied, “The vision is yet for the appointed time; it testifies about the end and will not lie. Though it delays, wait for it, since it will certainly come and not be late. Look, his ego is inflated; he is without integrity. But the righteous one will live by his faith” (Hab 2:3-4). In the Lord’s declaration of what would happen to the Chaldeans—and how God’s people should live in the meantime—the authors of the New Testament saw themes that applied to their audiences.
Paul employed Hab 2:4 to help unify the divergent Jew/Gentile audience in Rome. He wrote, “I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is God’s power for salvation to everyone who believes, first to the Jew, and also to the Greek. For in it God’s righteousness is revealed from faith to faith, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith’” (Rom 1:16-17). Paul urged Jews and Gentiles in Rome to hold tightly to their faith in Christ—lest their national distinctions pull them apart (Romans 9-11; 15:1-7). After Paul evangelized the region of Galatia, those who argued that Gentiles needed to show their salvation by observing the historical practices of Judaism (including circumcision and food laws) began to have influence in the region. To counter this heretical insurgency, Paul took up Hab 2:4 saying, “All who rely on the works of the law are under a curse, because it is written: ‘Cursed is everyone who does not continue doing everything written in the book of the law.’ Now it is clear that no one is justified before God by the law, because ‘the righteous will live by faith’” (Gal 3:10-11).
The author of Hebrews likewise saw in Hab 2:4 instruction for his audience—those who needed to persevere in their current struggles as outcasts of the synagogue community, exiled from the social and financial securities available to Jews within the Roman culture. Habakkuk urged his audience to trust in the Lord for vindication in the day when He destroyed their enemies, and the author to the Hebrews wished the same for his readers. He encouraged them to be confident saying, “In yet a very little while, the Coming One will come and not delay. But My righteous one will live by faith; and if he draws back, My soul has no pleasure in him.’ But we are not those who draw back and are destroyed, but those who have faith and obtain life” (Heb 10:35-39).
In John 11, Jesus’ demonstrated His deity by raising Lazarus from the dead. Despite Jesus’ greatness, the Jewish leaders sought to destroy Him. Taken together, statements from the Psalms, Isaiah, and Ezekiel portrayed the Messiah as One who would demonstrate power over life and death—yet be rejected by His people. The events of John 11-12 brought the psalmist and two of Israel’s prophets together in a concert proclaiming that Jesus was the Messiah upon His entry into Jerusalem.
The God who is Life
Ezekiel prophesied of the Lord’s grace that would come upon His people to forgive their sins and awaken them to new spiritual life. The Lord brought Ezekiel to a valley filled with dry bones and commanded him to prophesy to the bones that they would come alive by his word. While Ezekiel spoke, the bones were animated with tissue. When the prophet commanded the four winds to give breath to the bodies, the bodies came to life. The Lord told Ezekiel that He was going to open graves that the dead of Israel would come out alive. “You will know that I am the LORD, My people, when I open your graves and bring you up from them” (Ezek 37:13).
When Jesus learned that His friend Lazarus had died, He wept (John 11:35). But this was more than an emotional moment for Jesus. If Jesus were merely filled with compassion for His friend, He could have healed Lazarus from a distance. The resurrection of Lazarus is an illustration of Jesus’ sovereignty to give life. When Jesus told Martha, “I am the resurrection and the life” in John 12:25, He clarified that He was capable of what the Lord proclaimed of Himself in Ezek 37:13.
Some Rejoiced, Some Rejected
Psalm 118 portrayed the psalmist’s thanks to the Lord for empowering Israel to victory over their foes. The psalmist described the celebration that took place in Jerusalem as the gates of the Lord’s city were opened wide (Ps 118:19-20). Though the nations had rejected Israel, the Lord chose to build His kingdom through Israel, His cornerstone (Ps 118:22-23). The psalmist described God alone as the Savior of His people. It was thus altogether right for the psalmist to say, “Blessed is he who comes in the name of the LORD” (Ps 118:26) heralding God’s salvation. When Jesus entered Jerusalem, the crowds rejoiced, and the Pharisees grew more frustrated (John 12:12-19).
To Jesus the crowd exclaimed Ps 118:26, waving palm branches in their hands (Matt 21:8-9//Mark 21:8-10//Luke 19:36-38//John 12:13), proclaiming Jesus the King of Israel. The Synoptic authors noted that while Jesus taught in the temple during that final Passover celebration, He told the Parable of the Vineyard Owner (Matt 21:33-43//Mark 12:1-11//Luke 20:9-18). Jesus concluded the parable by citing Ps 118:22-23 and applying it to Himself. The stone the Jewish leadership rejected was the cornerstone of God’s program to reveal Himself and redeem His people. The author of Psalm 118 described how God’s work of deliverance would be both celebrated and rejected. The Evangelists and Jesus rooted Jesus’ Holy Week ministry in those themes of Psalm 118.
The King on a Colt
Zechariah proclaimed that God wanted the hearts of His people and urged the returned exiles to repent. The prophet announced that the Lord would avenge the sufferings of His people by judging their foes and setting a mighty king over Israel. In Zech 9:9, Zechariah said “Rejoice greatly, Daughter Zion! Shout in triumph, Daughter Jerusalem! See, your King is coming to you; He is righteous and victorious, humble and riding on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey.”
The Evangelists interpreted Jesus’ entrance into Jerusalem riding on a donkey as a fulfillment of Zech 9:9 (Matt 21:5//John 12:15). But as Jesus entered the city, the disciples did not connect dots. John noted that only after Jesus was glorified did they understand that Jesus’ ride into Jerusalem fulfilled Zech 9:9. John’s authorial disclaimer in John 12:16 underscored Jesus’ death and resurrection as the interpretive peak upon which the New Testament writers understood the Old Testament.
To See or Not to See
In Isaiah 6, Isaiah described his call experience. He saw the Lord high and exalted and heard the angelic host proclaim God’s holiness. The Lord commissioned Isaiah to proclaim His truth to Israel but told the prophet that the people would reject his messages. Isaiah’s messages would seal Israel’s unbelief. In Isaiah 53, the prophet described the ironic state of the Lord’s Servant. He was God’s chosen, wise leader but He was not attractive in appearance and was rejected by the people. So, when the people rejected the Lord’s Servant, they were rejecting the One through whom God had willed to reveal His power (Isa 53:1).
In John 12:37-41, John collocated Isa 53:1 and Isa 6:10 to explain why so many had rejected Jesus despite the signs He did before them. Though God revealed Himself through Jesus, through Jesus’ ministry God blinded the hearts of the Jewish people. God’s revelation in His Son thus simultaneously opened some eyes to faith and sealed others shut in blindness. Isaiah’s ministry experience in Isa 6:10 anticipated Jesus’ ministry. In this way, Isaiah saw Jesus’ glory and prophesied of Him (John 12:41).
