Category: <span>New Testament</span>

Paul’s appearance in the temple did not go as he had hoped. Having traveled as far as Achaia on his third missionary journey, Paul returned to Jerusalem with the gifts from the churches (Rom 15: 22-33; 1 Cor 16:1-3; 2 Cor 8:1-9:15). Paul hoped that in the eyes of Jewish Christians who were skeptical of his ministry to the Gentiles, these financial offerings would validate the Gentiles as God’s people. But the unbelieving Jews in Jerusalem rejected Paul in the temple and thwarted Paul’s attempt to unify Jewish and Gentile Christians there. In Acts 21-23, the Old Testament influenced Paul’s thinking and the mindset of his opponents.

(1) In Acts 21:23-24, Paul submitted to a vow as a way of showing his identification with Israel and his regard for the law. Commitments like the Nazarite vow provided a way for Israelites to show their commitment to the Lord in the community of his people. In Numbers 6, Moses prescribed that one taking the Nazarite vow was to abstain from strong drink and anything produced by the grapevine, let his hair grow, and avoid contact with a corpse. When the period of consecration was over, the person completing their vow was to bring a sacrifice to be offered at the tent of meeting (which was eventually replaced by the temple) and the person’s head was to be shaved. Some in Jerusalem thought that Paul had taken the message of the Jerusalem Council—that Gentiles should not be burdened with the Mosaic law—too far. They heard a report that Paul told Jews to abandon the law (Acts 21:21). To thus ensure Paul’s acceptance in the city, the Jerusalem leaders urged Paul to submit to ritual purity and assist those who had taken a vow by paying for them to get their heads shaved (Acts 21:22-24). The leaders of the church in Jerusalem hoped that by Paul’s public identification with these men who had taken a vow of purity, Paul would be seen as a peacemaker and not a rebel. The Jerusalem leaders said, “Then everyone will know that what they were told about you amounts to nothing, but that you yourself are also careful about observing the law” (Acts 21:24). Paul submitted to the counsel of the leaders, but it was to no avail. Near the end of the festival, “the Jews from the province of Asia saw him [Paul] in the temple complex, stirred up the whole crowd, and seized him” (Acts 21:27). They slandered Paul to the crowd, accusing him of teaching against Israel, the law, and the temple (Acts 21:28). They falsely accused Paul of bringing a Gentile into the temple complex, profaning it (Acts 21:29).

(2) In Acts 21:1-14, many warned Paul to avoid Jerusalem, echoing Jesus and the prophets who said that Jerusalem consistently rejected those who spoke for God. Jeremiah preached against Jerusalem because of the idolatry he witnessed in the city (Jer 4:3-16; 6:1-6; 11:1-13). And he suffered for it, suffering beatings and imprisonment at the hand of the city’s religious and civic leaders (Jer 20:1-6; 26:1-19; 38:1-28). The people of Jerusalem killed Zechariah son of Jehoiada the priest when he confronted them for transgressing the Lord’s commands (2 Chron 24:20-22; Matt 23:35//Luke 11:51). On the mount of transfiguration, Jesus discussed with Moses and Elijah the departure he would accomplish in Jerusalem (Luke 9:31) and then set His face toward the city (Luke 9:51). Along the journey to Jerusalem, Jesus proclaimed that Jerusalem was the greatest threat to anyone who spoke for God (Luke 13:33). When Paul and company arrived in Tyre, some disciples there “said to Paul through the Spirit not to go to Jerusalem” (Acts 21:4). The same counsel was given at Philip’s home in Caesarea, where Agabus—who had earlier come down from Jerusalem (Acts 11:27-30)—arrived again and predicted that the Jews would bind Paul and hand him over to the Gentiles if he continued his journey as planned (Acts 21:7-11). Luke shared his perspective writing, “When we heard this, both we and the local people begged him not to go up to Jerusalem” (Acts 21:12). But Paul would not be deterred, saying, “I am ready not only to be bound, but also to die in Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 21:13).

(3) In Acts 23:5, Paul cited Exod 22:28 to establish that he followed the law even when the Jewish leadership did not. In Exodus 22, Moses set out various laws regarding property and personal relationships. Israel was to do justice in the land, living in an orderly and respectful manner toward their brothers as a reflection of trust in God. “You must not blaspheme God or curse a leader among your people,” Moses said (Exod 22:28). When the Jews from Asia accused Paul of bringing a Gentile into the temple (Acts 21:28-29), a riot ensued and Jerusalem was in an uproar. Although the Jews risked being liable of insurrection, they nonetheless continued to rage against Paul—who “had to be carried off by the soldiers because of the mob’s violence…following and yelling, ‘Kill him!’” (Acts 21:36). Once Paul informed the Roman commander that although he was of Jewish descent he was also a Roman citizen from the city of Tarsus, he was permitted to address the crowd with at least some degree of military protection (Acts 21:40-22:30). But the Jews again raged against Paul. Eventually the Roman commander in charge instructed the chief priests and all the Sanhedrin to gather and hear Paul (Acts 22:30). After Paul uttered one sentence, Ananias the high priest ordered Paul struck. Paul spoke against the high priest and confronted him for breaking the law. Those in the Sanhedrin in turn confronted Paul for blaspheming Israel’s high priest. “‘I did not know, brothers,’ Paul said, ‘that it was the high priest. For it is written, You must not speak evil of a ruler of your people’” (Acts 23:5).

Luke provided little information regarding the transition between Paul’s second and third journeys. After landing back at Caesarea to conclude his second trip, Paul went up to Jerusalem to give a mission report, then back down to Antioch, and “set out, traveling through one place after another in the Galatian territory and Phrygia, strengthening all the disciples” (Acts 18:23). Paul traveled nearly 2,500 miles with the most primitive transportation methods—and then started over again in short order. His third journey was spent mainly in the port city of Ephesus and the provinces of Macedonia and Achaia. The events of Paul’s third journey point to Jesus’ exalted status in the narrative of Scripture.

(1) In Acts 19:1-7, Paul taught the disciples in Ephesus that the Holy Spirit comes upon those who are baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. The Holy Spirit came upon individuals in the Old Testament to empower them for service in Israel. God’s Spirit came upon Bezalel to construct the tabernacle (Exod 31:3; 35:31). The Lord commanded Moses to identify seventy leaders in Israel who could help Moses lead, and the Lord put the Spirit on them just as He had Moses (Num 11:16-30). The Spirit came upon the Judges of Israel to empower them for leadership and military victory (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 9:23; 11:29; 13:25; 14:19; 15:14). Saul (1 Sam 10:6, 10; 11:6; 16:14) and David (1 Sam 16:13; 2 Sam 23:2; Ps 51:11) were anointed with the Spirit for their leadership. The Spirit directed the prophets (1 Kgs 18:12; 2 Kgs 2:16; 2 Chron 15:1; 18:23; 24:20; Neh 9:30; Ezek 2:2). Ezekiel (Ezek 36:16-37:14) and Joel (Joel 2:28-32) promised a day when the Lord would put His Spirit upon His people and give them new life. When Paul arrived at Ephesus, he found twelve disciples who had a religious experience of John’s baptism (Acts 19:3) but did not know about the power of the Spirit upon those who had been baptized into Jesus (Acts 19:2). Once they were baptized, they received the Spirit and displayed His power just as the crowds in Jerusalem (Acts 2:1-13) and those in Cornelius’ house (Acts 10:44-48) had. John’s baptism was not enough. Jesus said that the Law and the Prophets were until John and that since his coming all were encouraged to enter the kingdom of God (Matt 11:12-13//Mark 13:31//Luke 16:16-17). During a Tabernacles celebration, on the last and greatest day of the feast, Jesus stood in the temple and cried out, “If anyone is thirsty, he should come to Me and drink! The one who believes in Me, as the Scripture has said, will have streams of living water flow from deep within him” (John 7:39). John noted that Jesus was speaking about the Spirit, “for the Spirit had not yet been received, because Jesus had not yet been glorified” (John 7:39).

(2) In Acts 20:7, Paul gathered with the believers in Troas on the first day of the week. God’s rest on the seventh day of creation (Gen 2:2-3) established a precedent for Israel to rest on the Sabbath (Exod 16:21-30; 20:8-11; 31:12-17; Isa 56:2-6; Jer 17:21-27; Ezek 20:12-24). The Jewish leadership opposed Jesus because He permitted His disciples to pick grain and eat on the sacred seventh day, and also healed on the Sabbath (Matt 12:1-14//Mark 2:23-3:6//Luke 6:1-11). When the women who came to the tomb on the first day of the week and found it empty (Matt 28:1-8//Mark 16:1-8//Luke 24:1-12//John 20:1-13), everything changed. Jesus’ resurrection shifted the gathering day for the people of God from the seventh day to the first day of the week. A new creation had begun.

After the Jerusalem Council and a season edifying the believers in Antioch, Paul requested of Barnabas, “Let’s go back and visit the brothers in every town where we have preached the message of the Lord, and see how they’re doing” (Acts 15:36). Luke reported the events of the mission geographically, following Paul and company from Syria as far as Macedonia and the provinces surrounding the Aegean Sea. Many of the cities named in Luke’s report later received correspondence from Paul—epistles that compose much of the New Testament. During Paul’s second journey, the Old Testament shaped his ministry partnerships and defense of the gospel.

(1) In Acts 16:3, Paul had Timothy, the son of a Jewish woman, circumcised before Timothy accompanied him on his second missionary journey. From the time that the Lord instituted circumcision as a covenant with Abraham in Gen 17:1-16, circumcision represented faithful participation in the people of God. Abraham circumcised Ishmael and the rest of his household (Gen 17:1-14), and then Isaac when the boy was eight days old (Gen 21:4). Moses’ wife Zipporah circumcised her son because the Lord threatened Moses’ life (Exod 4:24-26). When Moses established the Passover celebration, he commanded that only circumcised foreigners could partake with Israel (Exod 12:43-48). Because the men of the wilderness generation had not been circumcised, Joshua made them submit to the command before entering Canaan (Josh 5:1-9). When Paul visited Lystra with the good news of the Jerusalem Council—that Gentiles did not need to be circumcised—he found a disciple of note named Timothy. Timothy’s parents were of mixed race and Timothy had not been circumcised according to the custom of his mother’s heritage. Having just been an integral part of the Jerusalem Council, Paul sought to pacify Jew/Gentile tensions. If Timothy were to be accepted in the Jewish synagogues where Paul was headed, Timothy needed to be circumcised. Paul did not require Titus to be circumcised since Titus was of pure Greek descent (Gal 2:1-5).

(2) In Acts 17:22-30, Paul confronted idolatry in Athens by retelling the Old Testament narrative of creation, the tower of Babel, commands against idolatry, and the day of judgement. Paul proclaimed that since God created the universe and gives life and breath to all living creatures, He is Lord of all and does not live in any temple (Acts 17:24-25). Paul’s portrayal of God reflected Genesis 1-2, Psalms 19 and 33, and the numerous Old Testament commands against idolatry (Exod 20:4-6; 32:1-10; Num 25: 1-15; Deut 5:8-10). In Acts 17:26, Paul noted that from one man God created all nations that have spread out over the earth. God scattered humanity by confusing their language after they built the tower at Babel (Gen 11:1-9). In Acts 17:30-31, Paul told the people of Athens that God appointed a day of judgement, reflecting the prophets’ expectation of the Day of the Lord (Isa 13:4-11; 24:21-22; Jer 46:10; Ezek 30:3-4; Joel 3:12-14; Amos 5:18-20; Zeph 1:14-18; 3:8). But Paul stated that on the day of judgement, the Lord would render His verdict upon each individual based upon their faith in Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 17:31). When Paul mentioned Jesus’ resurrection, some scoffed but others, both men and women, believed (Acts 17:32-33).

After God sent His Spirit upon Gentiles in Acts 10:44-46, just as He had upon those gathered in the temple in Acts 2:1-13, controversy developed as to what the Gentiles needed to do in order to be saved. Despite the fact that Peter and Paul preached the gospel to Gentiles and reported that God’s Spirit came upon them, some in Jerusalem still demanded that Gentiles follow the law of Moses. The Jerusalem Council was convened to reach a verdict on what Gentiles needed to do in order to be saved. James stated that the decision he reached was consistent with the Old Testament prophesies that God would call the Gentiles once Israel was restored.

(1) In Acts 15:1 and 5, some argued that circumcision according to the law was required for salvation. The Lord instituted circumcision for Israelite males when He commanded Abraham to circumcise his son Ishmael and all the males of his household (Gen 17:9-14). Only those foreigners that underwent circumcision were allowed to eat the Passover (Exod 12:43-49). Joshua circumcised the males born during the forty years that Israel traveled in the wilderness before they entered Canaan (Josh 5:1-9). Luke wrote that while Paul and Barnabas were in Antioch, some prophets came from Judea commanding that the Gentiles needed to be circumcised in order to be saved (Acts 15:1). The debate was so sharp that the church in Antioch decided to send Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem to report all that God had done through them among the Gentiles—apart from the requirement of circumcision. When those in Jerusalem gathered, “Some of the believers from the party of the Pharisees stood up and said, ‘It is necessary to circumcise them and to command them to keep the law of Moses!’” (Acts 15:5). After a period of debate, Peter reminded the delegates at the council that God—in accord with his vision of unclean animals and the command to eat them (Acts 10:9-15)—“made a choice among you, that by my mouth the Gentiles would hear the gospel message and believe” (Acts 15:7). Peter reported that the presence of the Spirit among the Gentiles (Acts 10:17-11:18) was evidence that they had received salvation in the same way that the Jews experienced salvation at Pentecost.

(2) In Acts 15:16-18, James cited Amos 9:11-12 as the basis of his verdict that the difficulties of the law were not to be placed upon Gentiles for salvation. Amos proclaimed that after the Lord disciplined His people, He would restore their fortunes and rebuild their dwelling in the land. “In that day,” the Lord said, “I will restore the fallen booth of David: I will repair its gaps, restore its ruins, and rebuild it as in the days of old, so that they may possess the remnant of Edom and all the nations that are called by My name” (Amos 9:11-12). James interpreted Peter’s work among the Gentiles as the fulfillment of Amos’s prophecy that the Gentiles would seek the Lord. Little more needed to be said. James amended his thesis only briefly, proposing that the Gentile believers should yet be instructed to “abstain from things polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from eating anything that has been strangled, and from blood” (Acts 15:20).

The record of Paul’s first missionary journey demonstrated the significance of Syrian Antioch as a missionary-sending church. From that assembly, Paul and Barnabas were called to evangelize Gentiles, enduring much opposition from the Jewish leadership in south Galatia. Paul’s use of the Old Testament in his sermons in Antioch of Pisidia and the Galatian city of Lystra provided a framework for understanding God’s redemptive work in Jesus.

(1) In Acts 13:22, Paul cited 1 Sam 13:14 and Ps 89:20 to describe God’s choice of David as king of Israel. In 1 Samuel 13, Samuel recorded Saul’s failure when the Philistines attacked Israel. Because Saul did not wait on the Lord, the Lord rejected him as king. Samuel told Saul, “The LORD has found a man loyal to Him, and the LORD has appointed him as ruler over His people, because you have not done what the LORD commanded” (1 Sam 13:14). That man was David, to whom the Lord directed Samuel in 1 Sam 16:1-13. In Psalm 89, the psalmist reflected on God’s greatness and His covenant with David. Unlike Saul, David was a man loyal to the Lord (Ps 89:20). While 1-2 Samuel and many Psalms articulated David’s greatness, Paul’s concern with David in Acts 13:22-23 was David’s descendant Jesus, the Savior God brought to Israel.

(2) In Acts 13:33-35, Paul argued that God’s word concerning David in Ps 2:7; Isa 55:3; and Ps 16:10 were fulfilled in the resurrection of Jesus. In Psalm 2, the psalmist reflected on God’s sovereignty in establishing Israel’s king as God’s Son. Because God appointed His son as the ruler of Israel, the nations opposing His people stood no chance even if they conspired together. Paul proposed that Ps 2:7, “You are My Son; today I have become Your Father,” was fulfilled in Jesus’ resurrection. By conquering death, Jesus demonstrated His deity (Acts 13:33). In Isa 55:1-5, Isaiah urged Israel to come to the Lord and listen to the One who made an everlasting covenant with David. Paul saw in Isaiah’s reference to God’s everlasting covenant with David a point of contact with Jesus’ everlasting life. Since David’s descendant Jesus was raised to everlasting life, Jesus fulfilled God’s covenant promise to David (Acts 13:34). Paul concluded his string of Old Testament references to Jesus’ resurrection by noting Ps 16:10, “You will not allow Your Holy One to see decay” (Acts 13:35). In Psalm 16, the psalmist expressed his confidence in God despite opposition. Because of God’s covenant with him, the psalmist was sure that God would not allow him to see decay in Sheol. At Pentecost, Peter used Ps 16:8-11 to explain Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 2:25-28, 31) as well.

(3) In Acts 13:41, Paul cited Hab 1:5 to explain God’s unexpected work in Christ. Paul argued that though justification by faith in Christ differed from current Jewish expectations of how God would save, Habakkuk’s prophecy provided a precedent for God doing the unexpected. Just as God had mysteriously chosen the Chaldeans as His instrument of discipline upon Israel, likewise He had chosen to justify both Jews and Gentiles through faith in Jesus Christ. Paul quoted God’s message to Israel in the days of Habakkuk, “Look, you scoffers, marvel and vanish away, because I am doing a work in your days, a work that you will never believe” (Acts 13:41) as a warning to the Jews of his day. The only hope of forgiveness was found in Jesus.

(4) In Acts 13:47, Paul and Barnabas quoted Isa 49:6 to express their ministry strategy in turning from the Jews to the Gentiles. In Isa 49:1-13, Isaiah prophesied of the Lord’s servant who would save not only the chosen ones of Jacob but also serve as a light to the Gentiles even to the end of the earth. When Simeon held baby Jesus in the temple, he said that he beheld God’s salvation and light to the Gentiles (Luke 2:30-32). When the Jews in Pisidian Antioch stirred up opposition against Paul and Barnabas, the missionary duo cited Isa 49:6 to articulate that since they had preached to the Jews, and the Jews had rejected the message of salvation, they would turn to the Gentiles. Paul and Barnabas said, “This is what the Lord commanded us: ‘I have appointed you as a light for the Gentiles, to bring salvation to the ends of the earth’” (Acts 13:47). When Joseph and Mary brought Jesus to the temple to present Him to the Lord, Simeon noted that in seeing Jesus, he had seen God’s light to the Gentiles. Paul and Barnabas understood their ministry to the Gentiles likewise to be God’s light of salvation for humanity outside of ethnic Israel.

(5) In Acts 14:15, Paul quoted Exod 20:11 and Ps 146:6 to argue that the people of Lystra should worship God, not idols or the apostles themselves. The fifth commandment for Israel was to observe the Sabbath, remembering that in six days God made the heavens and the earth, the sea and all that it contained (Exod 20:11). The psalmist echoed Moses’ portrait of God and noted that God raises up the oppressed (Ps 146:6-8). In Lystra, the Lord healed a lame man when Paul told him to stand up and walk (Acts 14:10). The crowds thought Paul and Barnabas were gods and initiated a regiment of worship and sacrifice in their honor. Paul proclaimed that he and Barnabas were human beings like them, created by the God who made the heavens and the earth, and all that they contained (Acts 14:15).

Having composed a scholarly biography of the life of Jesus, Luke set out for Theophilus an account of the early church. Luke had an affinity for clarifying the place of Christianity within the broader sphere of the Roman world. In Acts 11:27-30, he noted that a famine in Judea prompted Gentile Christians to share with their Jewish brothers. The gift from the multiethnic church in Antioch initiated the prophets’ vision of all nations gathering with Israel to worship the Lord. Isaiah prophesied that in the last days, all nations would come to Jerusalem for worship and reconciliation (Isa 2:2-4). He said, “Nations will not take up the sword against other nations, and they will never again train for war” (Isa 2:4b). In Isa 56:6-7, the prophet announced the future day when foreigners would convert to the Lord and worship in the temple with the result that God’s house would be called a house of prayer for all nations (Matt 21:3//Mark 11:17//Luke19:46). Zechariah prophesied that in the day when the Lord restored His people, many nations would join themselves to Israel in Jerusalem (Zech 2:10-13).

Luke wrote that Saul and Barnabas carried the gift from the Antioch church to Jerusalem (Acts 11:29-30). The famine relief efforts of the Hellenistic Christians in Antioch set the stage for the substantial role these kinds of efforts played in the world of the New Testament. Due to a famine that had come upon the land, the Gentile Christians had the opportunity to aid their Jewish brethren. In Paul’s view of redemptive history, Gentiles and Jews were to be united through Christ’s death and resurrection—and Paul hoped that famine relief from Gentile Christians to the saints in Jerusalem would be a means of unity between these groups.

(1) In Gal 2:1-10, Paul referenced his Jerusalem visit and noted that the apostles in Jerusalem encouraged him to continue to remember the poor in Jerusalem as he evangelized the Gentiles. Paul recounted the ministry he and Barnabas had delivered to the Jerusalem leaders and stated that James gave them the right hand of fellowship (Gal 2:9). James exhorted Paul and Barnabas that as they evangelized the Gentiles, they should remember the poor in Judea (Gal 2:10).

(2) In 1 Cor 16:1-4 and 2 Cor 9:12-15, Paul urged the Corinthians to contribute to the needs in Jerusalem. Paul concluded 1 Corinthians by noting his travel plans. He hoped to return and visit them again, picking up their contribution so that he might take it to Jerusalem (1 Cor 16:1-4). In 2 Cor 8:1-9:15, Paul affirmed the Corinthians’ initial intentions to give and urged them to complete their commitment. Paul wrote that the Corinthians’ gift would supply the needs of the saints but also glorify God by causing many to thank the Lord for His care through His people. The Gentiles’ generosity would be a proof that they had received the gospel (2 Cor 9:12-15).

(3) In Rom 15:22-33, Paul wrote that he planned to take the Gentiles’ contribution to the church in Jerusalem as a means of gaining favor with the church there. Paul wrote that though he hoped to visit the church in Rome and go by way of them to Spain, he was first traveling to Jerusalem to take the gift from the churches in Macedonia and Achaia. These Gentile churches were indebted to the Jewish saints in Jerusalem, sharing in the spiritual benefits of God’s faithfulness to Israel (Rom 1:18-19; 11:17-32; 15:7-13). Paul urged the Romans to pray that the church in Jerusalem would receive him and the gift from the Gentiles.

Luke provided an account of the early church, describing the shift that had occurred in salvation history with the coming of Jesus the Messiah. Paul’s conversion in Acts 9 provided the backdrop for grasping Paul’s zeal to advance in Judaism and later his zeal to advance Christianity. Peter’s vision of unclean animals and the subsequent conversion of the Gentiles likewise served to advance God’s purpose of drawing all peoples to Himself. Both Paul and Peter understood that Scripture’s storyline needed to be viewed in light of Jesus.

(1) In Acts 9:1-4, Paul zealously defended his beliefs by killing Christians—echoing the zeal of Phinehas to kill those who violated the law. Aaron’s grandson Phinehas exhibited zeal for the Lord when Israelite men worshipped Baal and slept with Midianite women (Num 25:1-6). Numbers 25:7 says, “When Phinehas, son of Eleazar, son of Aaron the priest, saw this, he got up from the assembly, took a stake in his hand, followed the Israelite man into the tent and drove it through both the Israelite man and the woman.” After Phinehas’ bold act, the Lord’s wrath upon Israel ceased so that only 24,000 died for their idolatry and immorality (Num 25:10-13). Following the conquest, Phinehas exhibited zeal for the law by inquiring why Rueben, Gad, and East Manasseh built an altar on the far side of the Jordan (Josh 22:13, 30-33). Paul may have seen himself as one like Phinehas, ready to confront the idolatry of those who worshipped the man Jesus. Once Jesus revealed Himself to Paul and Paul connected with the disciples in Damascus, “Immediately he began proclaiming Jesus in the synagogues: ‘He is the son of God’” (Acts 9:20).

(2) In Acts 10:9-15, Peter had a vision in which he was commanded to eat foods that were unclean according to the standards of the law. In Acts 10, Luke recorded that Cornelius, a devout and God-fearing resident of the port city of Caesarea, was told in a vision that he should call for Peter (Acts 10:1-8). In accord with the vision given to Cornelius, Peter too received a vision (Acts 10:9-16). Peter was shown “all the four-footed animals and reptiles of the earth, and the birds of the sky” (Acts 10:12). According to Old Testament food laws (Lev 11:1-23, 41-47; Deut 4:15-20; 14:1-21), these animals were forbidden. These laws called for Israel to abstain from the sinful practices of the nations that inhabited Canaan in the days of the conquest (Deut 4:1-9). When a voice thus told Peter, “Get up…kill and eat!” (Acts 10:13), Peter refused, saying, “No, Lord…For I have never eaten anything common and unclean!” (Acts 10:14). Being assured again and again and again that God had called these foods clean, Peter saw the animals being taken back up to heaven. The following day when Peter arrived at Caesarea with the delegation from Cornelius, Peter said, “You know it’s forbidden for a Jewish man to associate with or visit a foreigner. But God has shown me that I must not call any person common or unclean…In truth, I understand that God doesn’t show favoritism” (Acts 10:28, 34). Peter summarized for the devout Gentile and his household that God had sent to them in order to proclaim to Israel the good news of peace through Jesus Christ. Peter said, “He is Lord of all” (Acts 10:36). While Peter was expounding that Jesus was both Judge and Savior of all men, the Spirit came down on the crowd. Luke commented, “The circumcised believers who had come with Peter were astounded, because the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out on the Gentiles also” (Acts 10:45).

After research and analysis, Luke wrote Theophilus with an orderly account of the life and ministry of Jesus Christ (Luke 1:1-4). Luke followed that volume with a report of the events that took place in the early church. Themes of expansion and persecution and further expansion surface throughout Acts 6-8. Analyzing how Stephen and Philip viewed texts of the Old Testament in light of Christ provides a grid for understanding God’s redemptive work in history.

(1) In Acts 7:3, 6 Stephen began his defense by stating that God appeared to Abraham in Mesopotamia, promising Abraham land and lineage even before Abraham was in Canaan. In Gen 12:1-3 and 15:13-14, God made a covenant with Abraham, establishing Abraham as the patriarch of a nation that would be a blessing to many nations through their occupation of Canaan. Stephen was accused of speaking against the temple and the law (Acts 6:13-14). He concluded his defense by stating that God does not dwell in temples made by hands—a note he foreshadowed in his opening statement. By establishing that God appeared to Abraham outside of Canaan, Stephen portrayed a theological point of reference that the Sanhedrin could not refute. In effect, Stephen argued that the temple-centered religion of the Sanhedrin was idolatrous, making the temple concomitant with God.

(2) In Acts 7:27-35 Stephen noted that after Moses fled from Egypt, God appeared to Moses at the burning bush in the wilderness. Stephen advanced his theological argument that God did not dwell in the temple by citing that God appeared to Moses while Moses was on the run from Pharaoh. In Acts 7:27 and 35 Stephen noted that Moses fled when a Hebrew rejected Moses for killing an Egyptian (Exod 2:14). Stephen’s point was that the Hebrew people rejected a man to whom God had chosen to reveal Himself. At the burning bush, God revealed Himself as holy and commissioned Moses to lead Israel out of Egypt (Exod 3:5-15).

(3) In Acts 7:37, Stephen cited Deut 18:15 as Moses’ prophecy that God would raise up a prophet like Moses—to whom God appeared on Mount Sinai. In Deut 18:9-22, Moses commanded Israel to avoid imitating the religious practices of the nations in Canaan. He told the people that God would raise up a prophet from among their brothers so that they could understand God’s word through the prophet and not through signs and wonders, as He demonstrated when He spoke to Moses and the people at Mount Sinai. God’s word to Moses on Mount Sinai advanced Stephen’s argument further still. The Lord appeared to Abraham when Abraham was in Mesopotamia and the Lord appeared to Moses twice, at the burning bush and at Mount Sinai. The Sanhedrin proposed that the temple was God’s special place of dwelling and Stephen cited various instances in Israel’s history that demonstrated otherwise. God was not bound to a place, Stephen argued.

(4) In Acts 7:40, Stephen referenced Israel’s hard-heartedness when they rejected Moses’ instruction and demanded that Aaron make them a god to worship. Stephen looked back at Exod 32:1, 23—when Israel demanded an idol—through the lens of Deut 18:15, which was written after the events recorded in Exodus 32. Stephen’s point was that Israel had rejected Moses repeatedly—even though the Lord had directly revealed Himself to Moses. Further, Stephen’s reference to the golden calf in Acts 7:40-41 was his attempt to note that humanity tends to worship products of their own hands. And the temple, Stephen later argued, was made by hands and was thus unable to house the Most High (Acts 7:48).

(5) In Acts 7:42-43, Stephen recalled when Amos rebuked Israel for their hand-made idols that represented the heavenly stars. In Amos 5:18-27, the prophet confronted Israel because they longed for the day of the Lord without knowing that that day would bring destruction upon them for their idolatry. Amos chastised the people because they were no different than their ancestors who committed idolatry during the forty years of wandering in the wilderness. Stephen took up Amos 5:25-27 to reinforce that hand-made images could not capture the greatness of the God who created the heavenly host.

(6) In Acts 7:49-50, Stephen cited Isaiah’s prophecy that God dwells in the heavens and not only in the temple. At the conclusion of his prophecy, Isaiah confronted Israel’s empty religious practices. The people sacrificed here and there but their hearts were not humble, and they did not tremble at God’s word (Isa 66:2). Isaiah stated that their problem was theological. They did not recognize God as the One seated on His heavenly throne, not needing a man-made house as His dwelling (Isa 66:1). In Acts 7:49-50, Stephen saw in the Sanhedrin exactly what Isaiah identified in his audience in Isa 66:1-2.

(7) In Acts 8:32-33, the Ethiopian eunuch was reading Isa 53:7-8 and Philip interpreted it for him as a reference to Jesus’ sufferings. On that desert road, Philip interpreted for the Ethiopian the events that had recently occurred in Jerusalem. Isaiah’s pointed description of a sufferer portrayed the sufferings of Christ. Philip helped the Ethiopian understand that the good news of Jesus was based upon Jesus’ suffering just as Isaiah the prophet had predicted (Acts 8:32).

After His resurrection, Jesus recalled Peter to ministry on the shores of the Sea of Galilee (John 21:15-19). Within a few weeks, the Spirit empowered Peter in Jerusalem. There and then Peter received a level of courageous speech unmatched in the unfolding of redemptive history. Peter used the Old Testament in his sermons, and his interpretations provide a window for understanding the shift that Jesus’ death and resurrection had brought about in the unfolding of Scripture’s storyline. For Peter and the persecuted believers gathered in Jerusalem, the prophetic witness of the Old Testament pointed to Jesus’ ministry.

(1) In Acts 3:22-23, Peter quoted Deut 18:15-19 to argue that Moses predicted a figure like Jesus would arise and God would speak through Him. In Deut 18:9-22, Moses warned Israel to avoid divination and test prophetic utterances. If a prophet’s word did not come true, the prophet was false. Moses said that the Lord would raise up a prophet from among the people so that God would speak through the prophet and not through His terrifying presence as the Lord had done on Mount Sinai (Exodus 19). After the Lord healed the lame man at the Beautiful Gate of the temple, Peter declared to the people that the ability to heal did not reside in him or John, but Jesus. Those who had witnessed the miracle—those whom Peter identified as “sons of the prophets and of the covenant that God made with your forefathers” (Acts 3:25)—were responsible to believe in the Prophet predicted by Moses in Deut 18:15-19 and listen to Him, to Jesus (Acts 3:22-26).

(2) In Acts 3:25, Peter quoted God’s covenantal promise to Abraham in Gen 12:3, stating that God blessed Abraham’s descendants by raising up Jesus from the dead. In Gen 12:1-3 and 15:1-6, the Lord promised Abraham both land and lineage. Abraham’s descendants would be powerful, blessing the nations. So numerous would be Abraham’s descendants that they would be as the stars in the heavens. Peter addressed the audience that had witnessed the healing of the lame man in the temple as those who were descendants of Abraham. In Peter’s interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant promise, God raised up Jesus and sent Him first to Israel that they would repent, receive the Lord’s blessing, and bless all the families of the earth (Acts 3:24-26).

(3) In Acts 4:11, Peter stated that the rejected stone of Ps 118:22 referred to Jesus. Psalm 118 is a psalm of thanksgiving for God’s mighty deliverance. The psalmist recounted that though mighty nations surrounded him and God’s people, the Lord intervened and made them victorious. While the nations thought themselves builders and attempted to reject Israel, the Lord reversed the fortunes of His people and made Israel the chief cornerstone of His sovereign rule over the nations. When the Jewish leaders arrested Peter and John for preaching Jesus in the temple following the healing of the lame man, Peter was filled with the Holy Spirit and confronted them based upon Ps 118:22. Peter portrayed Jesus and not Israel as the cornerstone and said, “There is salvation in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to people by which we must be saved” (Acts 4:12). Peter’s interpretation of Ps 118:22 reflected Jesus’ use of the verse at the conclusion of the Parable of the Vineyard Owner (Matt 21:42//Mark 12:10-11//Luke 20:17).

(4) In Acts 4:25-26, the church gathered for prayer and confessed that the Jewish and Roman opposition to Jesus was in accord with Ps 2:1-2. In Psalm 2, the psalmist pictured kings and nations coming against Israel and her king. But their plans were futile. The Lord laughed at those who would oppose Him, and the psalmist urged all nations to kiss Israel’s king, God’s son, and make peace before the Lord crushed them in His wrath. Peter and those in his fellowship understood the referents of Ps 2:1-2 as “Herod and Pontius Pilate, with the Gentiles and the peoples of Israel” (Acts 4:27). Though the Jewish and Roman leadership united against Jesus, the church confessed that the Lord had predetermined Jesus’ death and resurrection. And since God was sovereign over the human schemes that led to Jesus being crucified, the church asked God to show His sovereignty by giving them boldness to testify of Jesus in the face of great opposition (Acts 4:27-30).

Luke contributed two works to the New Testament, both biographical in nature. In his Gospel, Luke reported the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. In the book of Acts, Luke provided portraits of the work of the Holy Spirit through the apostles and the early church. The earlier account dovetailed into the latter, bridged by the promise and fulfillment of power from on high coming upon the apostles—as Jesus had prophesied in Luke 24:49. Peter’s sermon in Acts 2 is one of the earliest examples of someone looking back to the Old Testament in light of Christ’s death and resurrection. Peter argued that the arrival of the Spirit was directly related to the death and resurrection of Christ—according to the witness of the Old Testament. Peter portrayed Scripture as a storyline that in Christ had reached its climax, signifying the dawn of the last days.

(1) In Acts 2:17-21, Peter declared that the presence of the Spirit upon those gathered in Jerusalem fulfilled Joel’s prophecy that the arrival of the Spirit would signal the last days. Joel prophesied of the day of the Lord, the time when God would intervene to destroy those who opposed Him and rescue the faithful of His people. In Joel 2, the prophet urged his audience to turn to the Lord, saying, “Who knows? He may turn and relent and leave a blessing behind Him, so you can offer grain and wine to the LORD your God” (Joel 2:14). Joel went on to prophesy that the Lord would restore the fortunes of His people, removing their disgrace in the eyes of the surrounding nations (Joel 2:19). Joel announced that the Lord would pour out His Spirit upon young, old, male, female, and slaves so that they would all proclaim God’s presence among them (Joel 2:28-32). When Peter saw the manifestations of the Spirit on those in the temple during Pentecost, his attention was drawn to Joel 2. Peter proclaimed that the Spirit’s presence confirmed that Jesus was the Messiah. Jesus had been raised and then ascended to God’s right hand, pouring out the blessing of God’s Spirit. The events of Pentecost pointed back to what God had revealed of Himself in Jesus’ death and resurrection. While the Jewish leaders killed Jesus for the great acts He had performed, they could not stop God’s plan. The Spirit came upon the people of the Messiah that they might bear witness of Him (John 14:15-26; 16:5-15).

(2) In Acts 2:25-31, Peter stated that when Jesus was raised from the dead, Jesus fulfilled David’s prophecy of resurrection in Ps 16:8-11. In Psalm 16, David wrote a poem of trust in the Lord’s covenant faithfulness. The psalmist concluded by predicting that the Lord would not leave his soul in Hades but show him the path of life and give him pleasure at the Lord’s right hand forever. Peter understood Psalm 16 prophetically, pointing forward to one of David’s descendants, Jesus, who would sit on David’s throne eternally (2 Sam 7:13; Luke 1:32-33).

(3) In Acts 2:34-35, Peter proclaimed that by ascending to the Father, Jesus fulfilled David’s prophecy in Ps 110:1. Psalm 110 describes the enthronement of King David. Seated at God’s right hand, the king enjoyed security and strength as God made the king victorious over his enemies so that he could serve as an eternal priest for the people. Peter reasoned that the presence of the Spirit on those in Jerusalem confirmed that Jesus was at God’s right hand, pouring out God’s blessing upon His people (Acts 2:33). Peter stated that his argument was based on Ps 110:1, “For it was not David who ascended into the heavens, but he himself says: The Lord said to my Lord, ‘Sit at My right hand until I make Your enemies Your footstool’” (Acts 2:34-35). Peter’s use of Ps 110:1 cohered with Jesus’ use of the text (Matt 22:41-46//Mark 12:35-37//Luke 20:41-44) and established a frame of reference employed by the author of Hebrews (Heb 1:13; 8:1; 10:12).