Category: <span>Commentary</span>

Numbers 7-10

These chapters continue the theme of God’s presence among His people. Numbers 7-10 form a bridge between the initial census of Israel (chs. 1-6), and the survey of the land and subsequent failure of faith within the community (chs. 11-14). Here the tabernacle—and its accompanying cultic activities—continues to serve as the fulcrum of the Lord’s covenant with Israel.

The twelve leaders who assisted Moses and Aaron in the census of Israel (see Num 1:4-16) later brought offerings for the tabernacle. Israel and the nation’s leaders understood that they were set apart from all nations by God’s special dwelling among them. In Num 7:10-83 the text records that these leaders brought equal offerings, together representing “the dedication gift” (Num 7:84). The voice from the mercy seat may be taken as the Lord’s approval of these offerings (Num 7:89). As was the case in Numbers 1-6, here too the text details the significance of those who would serve at the tabernacle. Numbers 8 gives special attention to the place of the Levites among the tribes of Israel.

Israel had begun to enjoy God’s favor even while they were yet an enslaved nation in Egypt. But from the exodus onward, the flow of the narrative emphasizes God’s jealous longing for His people to recognize His presence among them in a special way through the tabernacle (see Exodus 25-40). It is thus not difficult to understand why Numbers 9 would accentuate the Passover celebration. The Passover would annually recall Israel to their sanctification by and unto the Lord. The prominence of the Passover in the life of Israel can be deduced from three statements in the text: even some of the ceremonially unclean were allowed to partake of the Passover (Num 9:6-12); all ceremonially clean were required to partake of it (Num 9:13); and the willing foreign resident could observe the Passover according to the same statute as the native-born Israelite (Num 9:14). As Israel looked ahead to the conquest of Canaan, they were also to look back and remember their Deliverer who brought them out of Egypt.

The remaining portion of Numbers 7-10 pictures Israel as a nation preparing for the conquest of Canaan. They were led by the familiar cloud and fire (Num 9:15-23). As they moved forward, two silver trumpets were blown to summon the tribes when it was time to set out (Num 10:1-8) and to gather the tribes for cultic observation (Num 10:10). When the trumpets were blown in times of battle, Israel would be remembered by God and delivered from their enemies (Num 10:9). They were to march out according to their military divisions (Num 10:14, 18, 22, 25, 28).

During this time, Moses persuaded his brother-in law to assist Israel in their journey. As one who knew the wilderness well, he could serve as Israel’s eyes (Num 10:29-32). The scene concludes with the people acknowledging God’s presence among them both when the ark set out, and when it came to rest: “Whenever the ark set out, Moses would say: ‘Arise, LORD! Let Your enemies be scattered, and those who hate You flee from Your presence.’ When it came to rest, he would say: ‘Return, LORD, to the countless thousands of Israel’” (Num 10:35-36).

Numbers 7-10 emphasizes that as Israel set out for the conquest of Canaan, they were to remember all that God had done for them in the exodus. Partaking of the Passover every year provided Israel a sense of identity. In the storyline of Scripture, Jesus’ crucifixion at Passover provided a new identity to a new people. Throughout 1 Corinthians, Paul wrote that individual faith and church life are to reflect what God had done in Christ’s death and resurrection. For Paul, the fact that Christ had laid down His life as the final Passover lamb had implications for personal morality and corporate edification. In 1 Corinthians 5, Paul rebuked the church for their casual attitude toward one of their own that had had relations with his stepmother. Rather than repent, some in the congregation boasted about the sexual freedom they supposedly enjoyed because of Christ (1 Cor 5:6). Paul reminded the church in Corinth that because Christ their Passover lamb was sacrificed, they needed to abstain from their old ways and practice their faith sincerely (1 Cor 5:6-8).

Commentary Numbers with Select Psalms Old Testament

Numbers 1-6

The book of Numbers picks up the history of Israel just over one year after the exodus. In the initial scene God was yet preparing His people to take the land of Canaan (Num 1:1). Numbers 1-6 is the account of how God organized Israel in such a way as to maximize their awareness of His presence among them while they journeyed toward Canaan.

The opening paragraph of Numbers records the census that arranged the Israelites for travel toward the southern edge of Canaan. Several facets of the commanded census are noteworthy: in breadth, “the entire Israelite community by their clans and their ancestral houses” (Num 1:2); in depth, “the names of every male one by one” (Num 1:2); and in purpose, “You and Aaron are to register those who are 20 years old or more by their military divisions—everyone who can serve in Israel’s army” (Num 1:3). In the midst of the detailed conquest preparations, the text records God’s presence among His people. The Levites were to remind Israel of God’s presence by maintaining the worship functions of the tabernacle. The greatest threat to Israelite success was not a foreign army but an offended God: “The Levites are to camp around the tabernacle of the testimony and watch over it, so that no wrath will fall on the Israelite community” (Num 1:53). The bulk of Numbers 1-6 describes the divisions and employment of the Levites.

Aaron was recognized as the head of all those who would serve as priests (Num 3:1-3, 5-10). The priesthood was to be taken seriously and priestly duties were the privilege of Aaron and his two remaining sons, Eleazar and Ithamar (Num 3:4, 9-10; see Lev 10:1-7). The Levites were designated as the firstborn of Israel, God’s special possession (Num 3:11-12; see Exod 4:21-23, 13:11-16). This theme was emphasized again toward the end of Numbers 3, where the text records that there were 273 more first-born Israelites than Levites—and 1,365 shekels were collected as “redemption money” (Num 3:51) so that all in Israel would be in good standing before the Lord.

The general census of the Levites reveals that there were 22,000 males one month and older (Num 3:14-15, 39). The census of qualified thirty- to fifty-year-olds of the ancestral houses totaled 8,580 men (Num 4:2, 48). All of these were responsible for some aspect of transporting the tent of meeting. The holy things—after the priests had properly cared for the cultic regalia of the tabernacle—were carried by the Kohathites (Num 4:4-15a, 17-20), the physical structures were then moved by the Gershonites (Num 4:25-26) and the Merarites (Num 4:31-32).

Numbers 5-6 stresses that God’s presence among His people was also significant for their activities outside of the tabernacle. Purity was to pervade the camp. Israel was to be pure from skin disease (Num 5:1-4), unresolved offenses (Num 5:3-10), and immorality (Num 5:11-31). Further, the Israelites were also free to take the Nazarite vow of purity. This vow was to be taken seriously and included: abstaining from wine and grape products (Num 6:3-4), keeping oneself from contact with dead bodies (Num 6:6-8), and not cutting one’s hair (Num 6:5).

The initial scene of the book of Numbers records that as Israel sojourned to Canaan, they were to be organized in such a way that they could remember God’s special presence among them. The prayer Aaron and his sons were commanded to perform provides an apt summary of the theme: “The LORD bless you and protect you; the LORD make His face shine on you, and be gracious to you; the LORD look with favor on you and give you peace” (Num 6:24-26). In this the priests would put God’s name on the Israelites as they set out for Canaan, and He promised to bless them (Num 6:27).

The arrangement of Israel in Numbers 1-6 prefigures a later episode of the storyline of Scripture. Just as God’s presence with Israel was intended for their encouragement as they prepared for the conquest of Canaan, Jesus’ presence has given the church great strength for the offensive of building His kingdom around the world. In the closing words of Matthew’s Gospel, Jesus commissioned His disciples to go throughout all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey all that He taught (Matt 28:18-20).

Commentary Numbers with Select Psalms Old Testament

Leviticus 25-27; Psalm 119:89-96

Leviticus is a combination of legal pronouncements couched in the narrative of Israel’s life around Mount Sinai. By setting forth the laws for community maintenance in the Promised Land, Moses reinforced the surety of God’s promise originally given to Abraham (see Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-16). The final chapters of Leviticus provided Israel with principles of how they should be holy with their money, using it for edification and not exploitation.

In Leviticus 25, the text emphasizes that Israel’s corporate occupancy of the land was to be more highly esteemed than the opportunity to maximize individual or familial prosperity. This idea is developed under two headings. The first is “laws concerning covenant socioeconomics and the Promised Land” (Lev 25:1-34). These themes come together in that Israel was to express their stewardship in obeying a Sabbath rest for the land (Lev 25:1-7) and reflect their temporary occupancy in the land by returning land-rights to the original family of ownership at every Jubilee (Lev 25:8-24). All of this was according to the declaration of the Lord: “The land is not to be permanently sold because it is Mine, and you are only foreigners and temporary residents on My land” (Lev 25:23).

The second heading is “covenant socioeconomics and servitude” (Lev 25:25-34). Just as property could be gained and lost temporarily, one’s economic status might change over time, according to the cycles of life. Thus, God commanded that the year of Jubilee have implications for socioeconomics and servitude. Since God had redeemed Israel from Egypt, the Israelites were not to take advantage of a brother who was destitute (Lev 25:35-38). Ultimately those of Israelite ancestry had priority in the land—as evidenced by their mandated release in the year of Jubilee, even if they were owned by a foreigner. This too was according to the declaration of the Lord: “The Israelites are My slaves. They are My slaves I brought out of the land of Egypt” (Lev 25:55).

The socioeconomic stipulations of Leviticus 25 are reinforced by the theme of God’s justice expressed in Leviticus 26. God promised to both reward Israel’s obedience by giving them peace in Canaan (Lev 26:1-13) and recompense their disobedience with exile and difficulty in a foreign land (Lev 26:14-39; see 2 Kgs 17:5-8; 24:10-17). These statements of warning were followed by statements of kindness to those who acted appropriately, and in Lev 26:40-46, God vowed justice toward the penitent by dwelling among them.

Leviticus 25-27 has national socioeconomics in view, that is, commands for Israel to be holy with their money and resources that they might be God’s faithful people in God’s land. Leviticus 27 concludes the instructions for Israel’s financial stewardship in Canaan by stating that if one made a vow in accord with a time of prosperity or need, God took the vow at face value. The text details seven different objects which an Israelite, in a time of prosperity or need, would be tempted to vow and the valuation for each one’s redemption. The proceeds collected would be used to maintain the cultic regime of Israel.

Leviticus 25-27 provided the young nation of Israel with instructions for financial sanctification in Canaan. In the storyline of Scripture, this theme—like so many—is transformed from a paradigm of life in Canaan to a paradigm of life in Christ and the church. Just as Israel was to use their resources for edifying their brothers and sisters, the New Testament records that those of faith in Christ are to use their finances for the same cause. Luke described the general situation of the church in Jerusalem writing that, “There was not a needy person among them, because all those who owned lands or houses sold them, brought the proceeds of the things that were sold, and laid them at the apostles’ feet. This was then distributed to each person as anyone had a need” (Acts 4:34-35). Paul wrote that this atmosphere of financial edification, especially for qualified widows (see Acts 6:1-7; 1 Tim 5:2-16), was to characterize life in the church. He urged those with wealth not to trust in their resources, and instead to be generous with what the Lord gave them so that they could lay hold of eternal life, life that is real (1 Tim 6:17-19).

Commentary Leviticus with Select Psalms Old Testament

Leviticus 17-24; Psalm 119:81-88

Moses instructed Israel that God’s holiness was the foundation of their national identity. From His appearance on Mount Sinai in Exodus 19 through the days of Israel’s travels to the Promised Land, God wished for His people to understand holiness as the essence of His nature—and to live accordingly. Leviticus 17-24 teaches that God’s holiness was to shape not only Israel’s religious observances, but also their relationships and community interdependence. Perhaps these chapters answer the question, “How should the holy be holy in everyday life?”

Although the laws detailed here could be categorized into a variety of headings, perhaps one could organize the initial instructions under three “lifestyle” issues: corporate gatherings, sexuality, and social relationships. Leviticus 17 and 20 catalog specific laws about corporate gatherings and ceremonies in ancient Israel. As is the case with many points of the Levitical code, these laws were intended to set Israel apart from other nations. Holiness was also to characterize the sexuality of Israel (Leviticus 18 and 20). Leviticus 19 provides instruction for neighborliness in ancient Israel.

While the thrust of these laws was holiness in the daily living of ancient Israel, here God also reminded Israel to maintain their holiness in worship and sacrifice. Israel’s religious observances were to be governed by the concept of wholeness—as evidenced by the priests, whose holiness was related to their physical condition (Leviticus 21-22). The formal worship ceremonies were to be ordered around specific occasions and Holy Days (Leviticus 23) and centered around the tabernacle (Lev 24:1-9). The case of the man who blasphemed God (Lev 24:10-23) underscores the point that Israel was to maintain the same law for the foreigner and the descendants of Jacob. The Lord of Israel is Holy and the behavior of anyone associated with His people was to reflect Him.

The theme of practical holiness in these chapters—especially the command to love one’s neighbor as oneself (Lev 19:18)—is picked up later in the storyline of Scripture, shaping norms in the new covenant. For Jesus and the authors of the New Testament, love of neighbor is an essential expression of holy living.

(1) Jesus said that all the Law and the Prophets hang on the commands to “Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind” (Matt 22:37//Mark 12:30//Luke 10:27a; see Deut 6:5), and to “Love your neighbor as yourself” (Matt 22:39//Mark 12:31//Luke 10:27b). After Jesus washed the disciples’ feet—an act that they would later understand to prefigure the love He would show them in His crucifixion—Jesus said: “I give you a new commandment: love one another. Just as I have loved you, you must also love one another. By this all people will know that you are My disciples, if you have love for one another” (John 13:34-35).

(2) Paul instructed the Romans that all the commands of the law were summed up in the phrase: “You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Rom 13:9). He exhorted the Galatians that they should not use their freedom from the Mosaic law for selfish living, but instead serve each other through love—since, again, “The entire law is fulfilled in one statement: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself’” (Gal 5:14).

(3) In order to combat favoritism and greed in his audience, James also quoted Lev 19:18, writing: “If you carry out the royal law prescribed in Scripture, ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself,’ you are doing well” (Jas 2:8).

(4) Peter employed Lev 19:2 as the thesis of his first epistle. To those who were enduring difficulty because of their identification with Christ, the apostle wrote: “As obedient children, do not be conformed to the desires of your former ignorance but, as the One who called you is holy, you also are to be holy in all your conduct; for it is written, ‘Be holy, because I am holy’” (1 Pet 1:14-15). He went on to urge his audience: “By obedience to the truth, having purified yourselves for sincere love of the brothers, love one another earnestly from a pure heart” (1 Pet 1:22).

Commentary Leviticus with Select Psalms Old Testament

Leviticus 11-16; Psalm 119:73-80

Leviticus 11-16 states the degree of God’s purity by pointing out how easily Israelites could become ceremonially defiled. Israel’s worship leaders were warned to, “Keep the Israelites from their uncleanness, so that they do not die by defiling My tabernacle that is among them” (Lev 15:31). A means of atonement was therefore necessary for full participation in worship.

Leviticus 11 emphasizes God’s holiness by stating that Israelites could become defiled even through contact with animal life. Here various wildlife (e.g., land animals, aquatic animals, birds, flying insects, dead animals, and swarming animals), were categorized in relation to their cleanliness/uncleanness for ancient Israel. God’s holiness was further displayed in the fact that His people were defiled through even the natural processes of life (Leviticus 12-15). An Israelite’s involvement in marital relations, and the general hygiene of their skin, affected their ceremonial cleanliness. In light of the superlative degree of God’s holiness described in Leviticus 11-15, it is no wonder that a general atonement was necessary for those drawing near to God in worship. That was the purpose of the Day of Atonement described in Leviticus 16.

Leviticus 11-16 provides a window for understanding the New Testament.

(1) Jesus, Peter, and Paul proposed that laws regarding food cleanliness were to be set aside lest they separate Jewish and Gentile believers. Jesus chastised the Jewish leadership because they maintained many of the commands regarding external cleanliness, including food laws, but lacked love for God and people (Matt 15:1-20//Mark 7:1-23). Jesus declared all food clean, saying that a person is made unclean by what comes out of his heart and mouth, not what goes into his stomach (Mark 7:17-23). To instruct Peter that He was opening the doors of salvation to the Gentiles, the Lord gave Peter a vision of unclean animals and told Peter to eat of them (Acts 10:9-16). The Lord then told Peter to go with the delegation from Cornelius’s house and Peter there declared that God was calling Gentiles to Himself apart from observance of food laws (Acts 10:17-43). Peter went to Jerusalem and reported all the Lord had done, proclaiming that the presence of the Spirit, and not external cleanliness, distinguished the followers of Jesus (Acts 11:1-18). Yet, food laws were so pervasive in the Jewish mindset that even Peter began to follow them again when he came to Antioch—and Paul rebuked him publicly (Gal 2:11-14). Paul repeatedly warned the Jews and Gentiles in his audiences that they should abstain from following food laws if those food laws caused divisions in their churches (Rom 14:1-23; Eph 2:11-22; Col 2:16-19; 1 Tim 4:1-5).

(2) In Phil 3:5, Paul noted that he was circumcised when he was eight days old, in accord with Lev 12:3. Moses commanded that when a Jewish boy was born, he was to be circumcised at eight days old. This command codified the covenant of circumcision the Lord made with Abraham when He commanded the patriarch to circumcise Ishmael and all the males of his household (Gen 17:1-16). Paul noted that, though like many Jews he once thought circumcision to be necessary for salvation (Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 5:1-12; 6:11-16), the Lord opened his eyes to the superior righteousness of Christ (Phil 3:1-9).

(3) Jesus healed lepers by declaring them clean, instantly, apart from the required priestly procedures in Leviticus 13-14 that would signify that a leper had been cleansed. When Jesus healed lepers (Matt 8:1-4//Mark 1:40-45//Luke 5:12-16; 17:11-19), He urgently commanded them to go to the priests and show their new, clean status.

(4) In Hebrews 9, the author argued that Jesus’ sacrifice of Himself fulfilled what the Day of Atonement anticipated. The Day of Atonement was the annual covering of Israel’s sins, for which the high priest and his servants followed specific protocol. First, the high priest dressed in holy garments (Lev 16:3-4). Second, he offered a young bull as a sin offering for himself and his family, sprinkling its blood on the mercy seat and the altar (Lev 16:6, 11-14, 18). Next, he brought two goats as the sin offering for Israel (Lev 16:7-10)—one to be sacrificed and its blood sprinkled on the mercy seat and the altar (Lev 16:15-19), and the other released into the wilderness as a symbolic representation of Israel’s forgiveness (Lev 16:20-22). Fourth, he disrobed of the holy garments and bathed himself (Lev 16:23-24a). Likewise, the man who took the goat into the wilderness was required to wash his clothes and bathe before returning to the camp (Lev 16:26). Finally, the high priest offered his ram and the ram of Israel as burnt offerings to the Lord (Lev 16:24b-25). An additional servant assisted in the process of taking the remains of the bull and goat, which had been used as sin offerings, outside the camp and burning them there. He too needed to wash his clothes and bathe before re-entering the camp (Lev 16:27-28). While the high priest and a few servants worked on this day, it was to be a Sabbath day of consecration for the people (Lev 16:29-34). The author of Hebrews wrote that Jesus entered the tabernacle of heaven with His own blood so that He would appear in God’s presence to atone for the sins of His followers once and for all.

Commentary Leviticus with Select Psalms Old Testament

Leviticus 8-10: Psalms 66, 119:65-72

Psalm 66 records the transparent joy of devout Israelite worship, a direct confrontation of those who continually paint Israel as a people of heartless ritual observance. The burnt offerings and sacrifices presented at the tabernacle were the response of those who enjoyed God’s vindication (Ps 66:13-20). To aid Israel in responding to His goodness, God gave them priests who would minister at the tabernacle. Leviticus 8-10 offers a narrative of how Israel’s holy God sought to relate with His people through sinful humans. Three movements can be identified in the drama of these chapters.

First, when Aaron and his sons were ordained for the priesthood, purification had to be made for their sins (Leviticus 8). God had set apart Aaron and his sons for spiritual leadership at the tabernacle—leadership that was to be recognized even through their attire (Lev 8:1-13). Yet, the bulk of the chapter details the fact that Moses was to offer sacrifices that would cleanse these men of sin before they could begin serving as priests. Even their attire had to be cleansed (Lev 8:14-36). Multiple sacrifices were offered at the inauguration of the priesthood: the bull for a sin offering (Lev 8:14), the ram for the burnt offering (Lev 8:18), and the second ram as a ram of ordination (Lev 8:22). A summary of these sacrifices and the priestly anointing is described in Lev 8:30: “Then Moses took some of the blood that was on the altar and sprinkled them on Aaron and his garments…In this way he consecrated Aaron and his garments, as well as his sons and their garments.”

Second, the office of the priesthood was also inaugurated with sacrifices. Leviticus 9 begins after the week-long ordination service in which many sacrifices were offered. The key element in this chapter occurs in Moses’ interaction with Aaron—namely that Aaron was now to lead in the sacrifices (Lev 9:7-8). After Lev 9:8, the personal pronoun “he” refers to Aaron: he offered the sin offering for himself (Lev 9:8-11); he slaughtered the burnt offering (Lev 9:12-14); he presented the people’s offering (Lev 9:15-17); he slaughtered the ox and the ram as the people’s fellowship sacrifice (Lev 9:18-21); he lifted up his hands and blessed the people (Lev 9:22). The Lord showed His approval of Moses and Aaron’s priestly work by appearing before all the people and consuming the burnt offering with fire on the altar. The result? “When all the people saw it, they shouted and fell facedown on the ground” (Lev 9:24).

Third, despite the glory of the inauguration of the priesthood, Aaron’s sons acted with presumption and profaned their office (Leviticus 10). Just as fire signified God’s glory in the blessing of Aaron’s obedience at the conclusion of Leviticus 9, fire became the means of the condemnation of Nadab and Abihu in Lev 10:1-2. Leviticus 10 records that Aaron’s sons took the initiative in offering a sacrifice that the Lord had not commanded (Lev 10:1). They were presumptuous. The remainder of Leviticus 10 records that Aaron’s two oldest sons would be exemplars of how not to serve the Lord.

Leviticus 8-10 records not only the inauguration of the priesthood, but also details how it would be perpetuated through Aaron’s descendants. The priesthood is a fulcrum for understanding the storyline of Scripture. The author of Hebrews contrasted Jesus’ priesthood with the Levitical priesthood.

(1) In Heb 5:1-3; 7:26-27, he distinguished Jesus’ priestly ministry with that of the Levitical priests because, according to Lev 9:7, Aaron and his sons had to make atonement for their own sins. When Moses inaugurated the priestly ministry, he commanded Aaron and his sons to bring a burnt offering to atone for their own sins and then the sins of the people. The author of Hebrews noted that Jesus had no need to atone for His own sin, but Jesus did atone for the sins of His people. “He did this once for all when He offered Himself” (Heb 7:27).

(2) In Hebrews 5-7, the author referenced Melchizedek to contrast the priesthood of Aaron and his descendants with Jesus’ eternal priesthood. The author of Hebrews saw in Melchizedek two points of contact with the life of Christ. First, Melchizedek’s priesthood was unrelated to Aaron or the Levitical tribe. Melchizedek preceded both by hundreds of years (Gen 14:17-24). The author’s point was that the Levitical priesthood was inextricably related to the Mosaic law and needed to be continued generation after generation. Second, Jesus, like Melchizedek, was an eternal priest outside the line of Aaron. Perfection came though Jesus and not the sacrifices offered according to the law.

Commentary Leviticus with Select Psalms Old Testament

Leviticus 1-7; Psalm 119:57-64

These chapters record the sacrifices and offerings the Israelites were to perform in worship. Israel’s worship was full of work—reminding them that every area of life was to be devoted to God. The bulk of Leviticus 1-7 describes the five specific offerings which appeased God’s wrath against the sin of His people. These can be divided into two categories, voluntary offerings and mandatory offerings.

There were three voluntary offerings, given by Israelites throughout the year as expressions of commitment to God. The burnt offering (Leviticus 1) was the most common offering. While offered daily for the sins of the nation (see Numbers 28), here the burnt offering was set forth as a means for individual worship and cleansing. While the burnt offering promised atonement, the grain offering (Leviticus 2) was the Israelite’s voluntary confession that God was their provider. The fellowship offering (Leviticus 3) was to be burned as a pleasing aroma to the Lord (Lev 3:5, 16). Additionally, this sacrifice was given as a confession offering, a free-will offering, or to fulfill a vow, and was associated with a meal (see Lev 7:11-38).

The Lord set forth two mandatory offerings. The sin offering (Leviticus 4) was for the purpose of satisfying God’s wrath when people sinned unintentionally. That the sin offering was to be given by the anointed priest (Lev 4:3-12), the whole community (Lev 4:13-21), or those recognized as leaders among the people (Lev 4:22-26) demonstrates that both those of position and the common Israelite were culpable before God. The sin offering satisfied God’s wrath against unintentional violation of His law and the uncleanliness of the people (Lev 5:1-13). The restitution offering (Lev 5:14-6:7) was intended to cover the defiling of holy things, touching prohibited objects, and thievery. Since these sacrifices constituted so much of the national and cultural fabric of young Israel, God gave them priests to assist them in their worship (Lev 6:8-7:27). These chapters repeat much of the material in Leviticus 1-5, but here the text also details the role of the priests in making each offering acceptable to God (Lev 6:8, 14, 24).

While the sacrifices of Leviticus 1-7 were laborious and required the utmost reverence from both worshiper and priest, they were yet temporal sacrifices. The Old Testament sacrifices could only appease God for sins previously committed and thus had to be offered day after day. In the storyline of Scripture, these are fulfilled in the once-and-for-all sacrifice of Christ. Jesus, Paul, and the author of Hebrews referenced commands Moses wrote in Leviticus 1-7 in order to teach their audiences about the new covenant and those who minister in it.

(1) Jesus and Paul echoed Lev 7:35-36; 8:31 when they taught that those who minister the gospel are worthy of compensation for their work. The priests were God’s gift to help the individual Israelites offer sacrifices—and these sacrifices were a means of provision for the priests (Lev 7:28-38). When Jesus sent out the twelve, He prohibited them from extra provisions saying that those who work to proclaim the message of His kingdom are to be recompensed accordingly (Matt 10:10). Even though Paul refused payment from the Corinthians, he told them that those who labor for the advance of the gospel, like himself and the other apostles, were to be compensated for their work (1 Cor 9:13-14). Paul told Timothy to establish a structure for the church in Ephesus to pay its elders (1 Tim 5:17-18).

(2) In Heb 10:1-17, the author emphasized the uniqueness of Jesus’ self-offering in light of the repeated sacrifices priests offered in the old covenant. The author of Hebrews argued that the repeated sacrifices offered by Israel’s priests demonstrated that those sacrifices were not effective to take away sins. In his mind, if a sacrifice were able to atone for sins, it would need to be offered just once. This Jesus did by offering Himself, perfecting forever those who are being sanctified (Heb 10:14).

(3) In Heb 13:11-13, the author recalled the location of where the remains of the sacrifice were burned and employed it to call his audience to testify of Jesus. Moses commanded that the remains of the sin offering and of the Day of Atonement offering were to be burned outside the camp (Lev 4:12; 8:17; 16:27). The author of Hebrews exhorted his readers to remember that Jesus was sacrificed outside the city gates of Jerusalem. He wanted the followers of Jesus to leave behind any structures of their religion that did not adhere to Jesus and proceed in devotion to Jesus, testifying of Him outside the camp of their religious heritage.

Commentary Leviticus with Select Psalms Old Testament

Romans 15-16

Paul spent the bulk of his third missionary journey in Ephesus. There he announced that after delivering the contribution for the saints in Jerusalem, “I must see Rome as well!” (Acts 19:21). After leaving Ephesus, Paul spent three months in the area around Corinth and composed the Epistle to the Romans (Acts 20:1-3). Paul’s thesis that both Jews and Gentiles should humbly receive the righteousness of God by faith in Christ alone surfaces in the final two chapters of the letter. What Paul hoped his letter would do for the church in Rome, he planned to do personally for the church in Jerusalem by taking a financial gift from Gentile churches in the Mediterranean world to the Jewish believers in Jerusalem. Paul intended their gifts to win the acceptance of the Jewish Christians and build a bridge across ethnic barriers for the gospel.

In Paul’s mind, even this had theological underpinnings. In Rom 15:27, he noted that the Gentiles were spiritually indebted to the Jews so sharing financial blessings with their Jewish brothers in Jerusalem was the right course of action. Paul portrayed his third missionary journey and the collection as the conduit for spiritual harmony in the Jerusalem church. From the Romans, Paul needed not money but prayer that he would be rescued from any opposition in Jerusalem (Rom 15:30-32). Paul’s generous, unifying ministry was not well received by non-Christian Jews that formed the majority populace in the temple when Paul arrived there (Acts 21:15-36), setting in motion a series of events that would lead him to visit Rome as a prisoner (Acts 28:11-31). The storyline of Scripture compelled Paul to unify Jews and Gentiles in Christ.

(1) In Rom 15:3, Paul quoted Ps 69:9 to illustrate Jesus’ endurance for the church and to call his audience to follow Jesus’ example. In Psalm 69, David cried for the Lord to deliver him from his enemies. Paul cited Ps 69:22-23 in Rom 11:9-10 to describe the hardened state of Israel. Paul returned to Psalm 69 in Rom 15:3. The psalmist proclaimed that he was suffering because of devotion to God, even acting as a substitute for God by taking upon himself the insults that the unfaithful hurled toward the Lord (Ps 69:9). Paul’s point with Ps 69:9 was that Jesus did not please Himself. Since Christ demonstrated such unselfishness, those who follow Him should do the same. This was the thrust of Paul’s prayer in Rom 15:5-7, which says, “Now may the God of endurance and encouragement grant you agreement with one another, according to Christ Jesus, so that you may glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ with a united mind and voice. Therefore accept one another, just as the Messiah also accepted you, to the glory of God.”

(2) In Rom 15:9-12, Paul quoted from the various genres of the Old Testament to establish that God intended Gentiles to praise Him along with Jews in Christ. Paul wished for the Jews in his hearing to take up the theme of David’s psalm of praise in 2 Sam 22:50. Near the end of David’s life, the king looked back at God’s faithfulness and said, “I will praise You, LORD, among the nations; I will sing about Your name.” In Rom 15:8-9, Paul used David’s phrase to exhort the Jews in his audience to recognize their fulfillment in Christ and testify of God’s greatness with their Gentile brothers. In Rom 15:10, Paul cited Deut 32:43, which says, “Rejoice, you Gentiles, with His people!” Moses indicted Israel’s rebellion and prophesied of a day when God would save them from their enemies. Moses proclaimed that the nations who respected Israel would likewise rejoice in God’s salvation. Paul employed Moses’ words to call the Gentiles to rejoice in God with their Jewish brothers. In Rom 15:11, Paul cited Ps 117:1, writing, “Praise the Lord, all you Gentiles; all the peoples should praise Him!” The second, and final, verse of the Psalm, “For great is His faithful love to us,” functions as an explanatory clause for the command in the first line of Ps 117:1. Paul employed Psalm 117 to urge the Gentiles to rejoice in God because of His faithfulness to Israel. Paul wished for the Gentiles in Rome to humble themselves before their Jewish brothers, recognizing that their place in Christ was due to God’s faithfulness in fulfilling His promise to send the Messiah to Israel. In Rom 15:12, Paul called his readers to consider Isa 11:10, writing, “The root of Jesse will appear, the One who rises to rule the Gentiles; in Him the Gentiles will hope.” In Isa 11:1-10, the prophet argued that despite the current rise of Assyria, the Lord would one day send His people a leader who would resemble David and rule in justice. Because of God’s faithfulness to His promises to Israel, the Gentiles could find hope in God.

(3) In Rom 15:21, Paul quoted Isa 52:15 to express his motivation to take the gospel to peoples who had never heard it. In Isa 52:13-15, Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord’s wise and exalted servant appeared, kings and nations would understand with certainty that he was from the Lord. Isaiah’s language accentuated the degree to which those who received the Lord’s servant would recognize him as one sent from God—even if they had no prior knowledge of his coming. So, when Paul presented the state of his current ministry and plans to take the gospel where Christ had not been named (Rom 15:14-33), Isa 52:15 illustrated his missions strategy.

Commentary New Testament Romans

Romans 12-14

Romans 12 begins a new section of the epistle. Paul began his letter by setting out his apostolic call, personal affections, and desire to preach the gospel in Rome (Rom 1:1-17). After indicting both Jews and Gentiles for their sin (Rom 1:18-3.20), Paul argued that through faith in Christ any sinner can receive right standing before God (Rom 3:21-26). As a result, no Jew or Gentile could boast over his neighbor (Rom 3:27-31). To establish the validity of this proposition, Paul called his readers to consider both Abraham and David—justified by faith and not works of the Mosaic law (Rom 4:1-25). Having set forth and illustrated his proposition, Paul went on to establish two further points. First, Paul encouraged his audience that despite their sinful past and present sufferings, they were secure in Christ by the Holy Spirit (Rom 5:1-8.39). Second, Paul maintained that God is sovereign over Jews and Gentiles coming to believe in Christ (Rom 9:1-11:36).

In Romans 12-14, Paul set out the implications of God’s fairness toward Jews and Gentiles, citing Old Testament passages to illustrate his argument.

(1) In Rom 12:19, Paul combined phrases from Deuteronomy and Proverbs to urge his audience that they should act mercifully toward their enemies. In Deuteronomy 32, Moses indicted Israel for their waywardness. Vengeance belonged to God, Moses said, and He would repay the wrongdoing of His people (Deut 32:35). Since God was faithful to repay Israel by sending them into exile, Paul assured his audience that they could trust God to take care of those who might oppose them. Paul urged the Romans, in accord with Prov 25:21-22, to join with God as He exhibited His wrath against their foes. As the Roman Christians blessed their enemies—giving them food when they were hungry, a drink when they were thirsty—the church would heap burning coals upon the heads of those who opposed Christ and His church (Rom 12:20-21).

(2) In Rom 13:8-9, Paul said that the command for Israel to love their neighbors as themselves summed up all other commandments. In Leviticus 19, Moses set forth various laws for how Israel was to live distinctly as God’s people in Canaan. Israel’s activities and manner of life were to reflect God. Moses said in Lev 19:18, “Do not take revenge or bear a grudge against members of your community but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the LORD.” Following Jesus’ teaching in Matt 19:19, Paul saw Moses’ statement as an umbrella for the Ten Commandments (Exod 20:1-17; Deut 5:6-21). Because love does no wrong to a neighbor, Paul argued, love fulfills the law (Rom 12:10; Matt 5:17-20; John 13:34-35). Paul directed his readers to love one another by putting on the armor of light, avoiding carousing, drunkenness, sexual immorality, promiscuity, quarreling, and jealousy (Rom 13:13). Casting off their old habits, Paul urged the Romans to “put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no plans to satisfy the fleshly desires” (Rom 13:14).

(3) In Rom 14:11, Paul cited Isaiah’s prophecy concerning God’s holiness and power to save. In Isaiah 45:14-25, the prophet warned Israel not to trust in the surrounding nations but to know the Lord God alone as their savior. So powerful is God to save, that Isaiah invited the nations to come, bow down, and find refuge in Israel’s God (Isa 45:23). Paul employed Isaiah’s prophecy to accentuate that God is the Judge and Savior of both Jews and Gentiles. According to Paul, Jews who esteemed food laws were weak in faith. Paul was concerned that the Jews’ weakness might incite the Gentiles to look down on their Jewish brothers, causing division in the congregation. Paul thus urged both Jews and Gentiles to avoid arguing about debatable issues like Jewish food laws and holy days (Rom 14:1-6). Since God alone is the Judge of all humanity, concerning these nonessential issues Paul said, “Whoever eats, eats to the Lord, since he gives thanks to God; and whoever does not eat, it is to the Lord that he does not eat, yet he thanks God. For none of us lives to himself, and no one dies to himself. If we live, we live to the Lord; and if we die, we die to the Lord. Therefore, whether we live or die, we belong to the Lord” (Rom 14:6-8). In accord with Isaiah’s presentation of God as Judge, the Jewish and Gentile Christians in Rome were to refrain from judging one another’s cultural preferences (Rom 14:11). “Each of us will give an account of himself to God,” Paul wrote (Rom 14:12).

Commentary New Testament Romans

Romans 9-11

Paul sought to show how the gospel message of justification by faith in Christ should humble the contrary Jewish and Gentile Christians of his day. Humbled, both groups were obligated to recognize God’s grace and be united as a single sacrifice unto the Lord (Rom 12:1-2) singing with one voice of praise to God (Rom 15:1-7). Romans 9-11 plays a significant role in the development of Paul’s argument. Paul expounded specific points in Scripture’s storyline to help his audience understand God’s fairness as a judge, and grace toward all in Christ.

(1) In Rom 9:1-18, Paul recalled God’s sovereignty over the lives of Jacob, Esau, and Pharaoh to argue that God was sovereign over the hardening of the Jews in his day. Paul called his audience to consider that the present situation of the early church was in accord with the sovereignty of God—displayed in the miraculous birth of Isaac and the casting out of Ishmael (Rom 9:6-9; Gen 21:12; 18:10, 14), and the announcement that Esau, the older son of Isaac and Rebekah, would serve the younger (Rom 9:10-13; Gen 25:23; Mal 1:2-3). Further, if during the exodus God displayed His sovereignty over Moses and Pharaoh, what human could question God for allowing things to turn out such that the Gentiles were now also revealed to be objects of God’s mercy (Rom 9:19-24; Exod 33:19; 9:16)?

(2) In Rom 9:23-33, Paul fused phrases from Hosea and Isaiah to argue that only by faith could Jews or Gentiles enjoy God’s righteousness. Hosea described God’s redeeming love for Israel. In Rom 9:25-26, Paul took up the prophet’s words in Hos 2:23 and 1:10, placing Gentiles as the referent of the Lord’s mercy. Paul then employed Isa 10:22-23; 28:22; and 1:9 in Rom 9:27-29 as a historical precedent that God would save only a remnant of the descendants of Jacob. Jews stumbled by rejecting Jesus and pursuing righteousness through works of the law. Paul portrayed Jesus as a rock of salvation for all who believed upon Him for righteousness but a stumbling block for those of Israel clinging to the law for righteousness. The Lord told Isaiah to fear Him even though Israel would stumble over their God (Isa 8:14) and trust death rather than the Lord (Isa 28:16). In Rom 9:33, Paul used Isa 8:14 and 28:16 to portray Jesus as the stone God had established as the Savior of His people.

(3) In Rom 10:1-10, Paul combined phrases from Leviticus and Deuteronomy to contrast righteousness that comes through the law and righteousness attained by faith. In Leviticus 18, Moses warned Israel that when they entered the land, they were to avoid both the practices they had witnessed in Egypt and the idolatry of the nations in Canaan. “Keep these statutes and ordinances,” Moses said, “A person will live if he does them” (Lev 18:5). Paul proposed in Rom 7:10 that though Jews thought the law would bring life, it brought death. For those who believe, Paul countered, Christ is the end of the law for righteousness (Rom 10:4). Righteousness by faith does not require someone to rise to heaven (Deut 9:4; 30:12) or go to the depths of the earth (Deut 30:13), Paul wrote in Rom 10:6-7. They only needed to believe in their heart the message of Christ as Lord and confess that message with their mouth (Rom 10:8-10).

(4) In Rom 10:11-21, Paul wove together verses from the prophets to portray both God’s faithfulness toward those who believe and Israel’s hardness in rejecting righteousness by faith. Paul noted in Rom 10:11-16 that though Isaiah and Joel announced the Lord’s faithfulness to His word of deliverance (Isa 28:16; Joel 2:32)—and sent messengers to Israel (Isa 52:7)—Israel failed to believe (Isa 53:1). So pervasive were the prophets’ messages to Israel that Paul likened them to the way that the heavens declare the glory of God (Ps 19:4). Moses predicted that the Lord would use pagan nations to discipline His people for their idolatry (Deut 32:21) and Isaiah prophesied that the Lord would be found by people who were not looking for Him (Isa 65:1). Paul wrote that the Lord had given understanding to the Gentiles, provoking Israel to jealousy as they rejected God’s offer of righteousness by faith (Rom 10:19-20).

(5) In Rom 11:1-10, Paul cited statements from Moses and David to supplement Elijah’s observation that the Lord is able to preserve a remnant in Israel though the nation remains hardened. After Elijah confronted the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel, he became afraid and ran from King Ahab and Jezebel (1 Kgs 19:1-3). Elijah thought he was all alone but the Lord informed Elijah that He had preserved a remnant of 7,000 who had not worshipped Baal (1 Kgs 19:10, 14, 18). Paul wrote that the Lord had preserved a remnant chosen by grace to believe upon Christ for righteousness (Rom 11:3-6) though the nation wandered in darkness just as Moses (Deut 29:4) and David (Ps 69:22-23) had said (Rom 11:8-10).

(6) In Rom 11:26-27, Paul wrote that the new covenant promises would be realized in the chosen remnant of Israel. Paul warned the Gentiles not to boast over their Jewish neighbors because the Lord had hardened Israel for a time. Isaiah prophesied that the Lord would send a deliverer to turn away godlessness from Israel (Isa 59:20-21), and Isaiah’s prophecy assured Paul that the Lord would one day awaken Israel to forgiveness of sin in Christ—just as Jeremiah prophesied (Jer 31:31-34).

(7) In Rom 11:34-35, Paul joined phrases from Isaiah, Job, and Jeremiah to present God’s wisdom in judgement of Jews and Gentiles. Paul’s frame of mind at the end of Romans 11 shared points of contact with Isaiah in Isa 40:13. The prophet announced that the days of Israel’s punishment were over; God was going to redeem Israel and shepherd His people. In order to underscore the Lord’s ability to redeem Israel, Isaiah described God’s supremacy over creation. Likewise, the Lord showed Job His wisdom by presenting Job with vignettes of how He ruled creation (Job 41:11). Though fools prophesied to Jeremiah and Judah that the Lord would not display His wrath against their sin, Jeremiah understood that the counsel of the Lord would prevail (Jer 23:18). Paul brought the voices of the prophets and Job together to depict God’s wisdom in salvation history. From God, through God, and to God were all things necessary for sinful Jews and Gentiles to receive God’s righteousness.

Commentary New Testament Romans